Athenian Proxeny Decree Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Athenian Proxeny Decree - Essay Example Whatever the authorities and the Greek leaders have in mind in the granting and institution of proxenia is the concern of this paper. The researcher shall attempt to make a comprehensive discussion of what the word really means. It shall trace its origin and the significance of its institution in the history and the struggle of Athens as an imperialist empire. Specifically, this paper shall deal with the political implication of the word by answering the following questions: (1) How did proxenia help to articulate the relations between Athens and her allies (2) How do the extant proxeny decrees enhance our understanding of proxenia And (3) What specific problems of interpretation do the epigraphically attested proxeny decrees present This paper is a significant study as it shall provide the students better understanding of what proxenos means. It also provides understanding of the significance of proxeny decrees and the impact of such to the early societies of Athens and its allies. The rationale of the proxeny decrees shall be unraveled which provides the researcher rich understanding as regards to what Athens want to achieve from its allies for the good of its people and for the great elader of Athens. Most importantly this study is significant to the society as it shall be able to provide some theories that other researchers can use in conducting deeper studies not only of Athenian Proxeny decrees but on the political and cultural life of the Athenians. Proxenia in the Articulation of Athens Relations with her Allies As Athens rose to its imperialistic power it was necessary to hold on to many of its allies. It needed to make peace with different nations such that of Persia. It needed to make Sparta recognize the 30 years of peace. It needed to establish alliances to different countries in order to win several wars. Athens implemented policies that could not only reform its own cities but it also made changes on policies concerning their foreign activities however, these provoked war and affected many of its intimate allies as they were called to fight and play their roles in the battles. Athens at that point needed to have people who would be more concerned in establishing good relationship with other nations. Proxeny decrees were found out for instance to have entered into by several nations to be come allies of the Athenian empire. Athens created and imposed several proxeny decrees creating the proxenos and granting such individuals several privileges making sure that they would serve Athenian empire with utmost loyalty. Having served for the glory of the Athenian empire proxeny decrees were later established to honor and grant privileges to these foreign benefactors. Oaths of allegiance were also imposed on defeated allies. As regards to their enemies and allies that turned against the Athenian empire proxy decrees were also imposed depriving them of opportunities for better political and economic standing. Mattingly (1996) described explicitly in his book the plight of Chios that remained "autonomous" ally of the Athenian empire but when they begun to build a new wall that brought suspicions to the powerful Athenian empire, they were told to put down the wall to which they complied with

Role and Functions of Law Essay Example for Free

Role and Functions of Law Essay The role of law functions in everyday business transactions and the surrounding societies. Melvin (2011) stated, â€Å"Law is a body of rules of action or conduct prescribed by controlling authority and having legal binding force† (p. 4). Role of law in a business and society are the same however can impact businesses differently. Kelly and Associates Insurance Group are compliant with many state and federal laws. Functions of Law Legal terms are often referred to as jargon or legalese. Law creates duties, obligations and rights that reflect accepted views of society. The U.S. Constitution includes the preamble, seven articles, and 27 amendments. The function of law is to establish a structure of federal government to settle disputes by establishing rules. Separating of powers to maintain the order and resolve disputes, and protecting the liberties and the rights of the people. Most of the U.S. laws are set forth by the first three articles in the U.S Constitution containing the legislative branch, the executive branch, and the judicial branch. Role of Law in Business and Society The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 is an example of a recent role of law for public companies performing business. The main purpose of this act is to prevent fraudulent business activity. Internal controls established so one employee, who receives a bill and enters the invoice, should not be the same employee creating the check, signing it and mailing it out. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act passed as a law due to the scandals at Enron and WorldCom. These companies both filed bankruptcy, as they revealed that their financial reports were fraudulent. The function of law in society is to protect the liberty of the people. In chapter 2, case 2.1 Cipollone v. Liggett Group Inc. Cipollone filed suit against Liggett  violation of New Jersey consumer protections statutes. Melvin (2011) stated, â€Å"Congress’s broadest power is derived from the Commerce Clause whereby Congress is given the power to â€Å"regulate Commerce amount the several states† (p. 33). â€Å"Article VI of the U.S. Constitution provides that the laws of United States shall be the supreme Law of Land. Thus [†¦] it has been settled that state law that conflicts with federal law is ‘without effect.’ [†¦]† (Melvin, 2011). In this case, the state law was preempted as it conflicted with the federal law, therefore, dismissed. Cipollone’s mother had used Liggett’s products and passed away. Liggett was protected under federal statutes with the general surgeon’s warnings on their product. Kelly and Associates Insurance Group Functions in Law Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPPA) regulates health-care providers, plans, and program administrators in gathering, storing, and disclosing medical information about individuals this is a well-known privacy protection act passed by Congress. Kelly and Associates Insurance Group is a third party administrator to many health insurance companies like CareFirst (BlueCross BlueSheild), Untied Healthcare, and Aetna. We are required by HIPPA laws to safeguard materials that have protected health information (PHI) readily available. PHI is a person’s name, geographic information, date elements, phone numbers, social security numbers, license numbers, or any medical information. Kelly and Associates Insurance Group are compliant with the HIPPA laws by having internal auditors. Random audits take place during the day and after working hours. The audits are a group of people who inspect any papers left out, check accessibility of PHI. In the event, information has been breached an affidavit is completed and report it to our compliance team for their completion of the violation. Each case is reviewed and depending on the severity of the violation Kelly and Associates Insurance Group, could be penalized or sued. Kelly and Associates Insurance Group have a service bureau payroll division that is working on reporting Affordable Care Act (ACA) hours. And generating reports to ensure their clients are compliant with the ACA requirements. Same-sex domestic partnership has been another law passed by federal and only some states recognize same-sex domestic partnership. The partner’s cost of insurance is considered taxable  and should be included as imputed income to the states that do not recognize same-sex marriages. Tax compliance laws occur in the payroll division as each state and federal regulations vary from their deposits and filing per client. The filing frequency is determined by the amount of reported wages through payroll; however it is always determined by the taxing authority. This information must be provided to the payroll division by the client due to the liability the payroll department could face as each taxing agency charges penalties and interest for late filing or incorrect filing frequencies. Conclusion Law is practiced many times a day by businesses and society. Without laws, the world would have no guidelines to follow. There would be no right, or wrongdoing, and there would be no justice for the people of United States. We are the people, the land of the free; with laws as guidelines to make U.S. a safer place. Laws are being established to better the business transactions and improve society’s quality of life. References: Melvin, S. P. (2011). The Legal Environment of Business. A Manageriel Approach: Theory to Practice. McGraw-Hill Company.

Free Trade Essays -- Economy, Developing Countries

What is free trade? Many American’s have a broad and sometimes-false idea of what free trade actually is. Free trade â€Å"refers to the economic philosophy and practice of reducing barriers such as tariffs, taxes, subsidies and quotas so that raw materials, goods and services can move unhampered across national borders.† (68) Various options have arisen about whether or not free trade benefits developing counties or not. I believe that free trade is not favorable or helpful towards developing counties. Free trade benefits few but not the masses, is in favor of rich companies with large corporations, means a loss of power and political control on a national, regional and local levels of government, as well as allows for child labor and there for loses out economically. Many people here in the United States are not well informed about Free Trade or its drawbacks. By giving people the information and steering them toward a better form of trade such as Fair Trade we could possible help those other counties that are dealing with the effects of free trade. When dealing with free trade the commercial benefits are hard to miss, more choices on cars and products, lower coasts on goods so consumers can by more products and live the good life. (p.68) However, digging deep in to the effects of free trade shows us that that it benefits few but not the masses. For example, the US will benefit from cheap labor and low tariff cost, paying less for more but the workers in the countries where the product is being manufactured will not benefit and neither will the country. (p. 71) By having cheap labor those people cannot afford to buy luxury items or even basic items, which in turn will affect that counties economy. By having youth workers not in sc... ...or those who did have jobs. (p. 95) This is an example of how free trade can be harmful to developing countries. When consumers lose jobs they can no long afford to pay for not just luxury items but basic living expenses that other industry are selling which sends a county into economic tailspin. I propose that rich nations should be more morally accountable for manufacturing companies they have around the world. Places like Wal-Mart and the gap here in the US should be paying workers fair wages, have decent working hours, no children worker under 16, and safe working conditions. U.S companies should follow the laws we have in our own country and abide by them in others. I believe that the government should reward socially responsible companies at first and then create laws here stating that when having companies abroad you must follow the laws we have here.

Restricted Earth Fault Protection

A Comparison Between High-Impedance and Low-Impedance Restricted Earth-Fault Transformer Protection Casper Labuschagne, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc. Izak van der Merwe, Eskom Enterprises Abstract—Restricted earth-fault (REF) protection on a transformer is a subject for which there has been little attention and, compared to other types of protection, very little literature exists. Depending on the method of transformer earthing and fault location, some transformer earth faults result in only a small increase in phase current, which transformer differential protection may not detect.Conversely, the amount of current in the neutral may be sufficient to detect most or all earth faults, again depending on the earthing method. By connecting an REF relay to CTs installed in correct locations on the transformer, one can use REF protection to complement differential protection in detecting transformer earth faults. Obtaining maximum benefit from REF protection requires tha t one consider many factors, including whether to select high-impedance REF or lowimpedance REF relays. In making this selection, one should understand the theory behind each option.Historically, only high-impedance REF protection was available, because of equipment and technology limitations. Today, numerical protection relays include low-impedance REF elements for transformer protection. Both types of protection have advantages and disadvantages; the relays do not perform equally well in all applications. One key advantage of low-impedance REF protection included in a numerical relay is the ability to use CTs with different ratios and specifications without the need for interposing CTs.One key advantage of high-impedance REF is proven immunity (relay security) to CT saturation for external faults. Key to either type of protection is the ability to provide maximum winding coverage against earth faults. There is also speculation, as yet unsubstantiated, that a high-impedance REF ele ment provides superior sensitivity and coverage against earth faults. This paper summarizes the theory of classical high-impedance REF protection and new low-impedance REF protection.It also discusses issues such as relay sensitivity requirements, transformer fault current distribution, impact of fault location on relay performance (winding coverage), CT requirements, the impact of CT saturation response on REF protection elements, and application considerations for the two protection methods. current changes very little, but large current flows in the neutral conductor [1] [2]. REF takes advantage of the large current in the neutral conductor to provide sensitive and fast protection for transformer faults close to the earth point.REF protection applied to transformers may be referred to as â€Å"unit earth-fault protection,† and the â€Å"restricted† part of the earth-fault protection refers to an area defined between two CTs. Generally, REF protection can be applied in one form or another to all transformer windings, even delta-connected windings (see Delta Winding—NEC/R Earthed). On solidly earthed star windings, we will show that fault coverage is possible from the first turn above the star point, provided the REF element connects to a CT in the transformer neutral.This high winding coverage is possible because the relay operates on the high fault current in the neutral conductor instead of on the small fault current in the phase. On an unearthed star winding or a delta-connected winding without a neutral earthing compensator (NEC), winding coverage is reduced because of the lack of a neutral CT. Unearthed star windings or delta-connected winding installations provide phase CTs only (see Delta Winding—NEC/R Earthed), and the REF element operates on the change in phase current only. II. EARTH-FAULT CURRENT AND IMPACT ON SENSITIVITY A.Earth-Fault Currents in a Transformer for Different Connections When operating from the neutral C T, REF protection provides more sensitive earth-fault protection than does biased current differential protection. However, many setting engineers are uncertain as to the exact increase in sensitivity that REF protection provides. It is therefore necessary to quantify what one means by â€Å"more sensitive. † In the following discussion, we investigate the available fault current for star windings (solidly earthed, impedance earthed, and unearthed) and delta windings. ) Star Winding—Solidly Earthed For a solidly earthed star winding, an earth fault anywhere on the winding is similar to an autotransformer with a fault on the secondary side. Fig. 1 explains the phenomenon. I. INTRODUCTION Power transformers constitute the single most expensive item of primary plant in a substation. To protect this investment properly, transformer protection schemes contain a combination of protection elements, with biased differential protection widely used. Although biased ifferential p rotection provides excellent protection for phase-to-phase and most phase-to-earth winding faults, this element is less sensitive for single-phase-to-earth faults close to the earth point in solidly earthed transformers [1], [2], and [3]. For these faults, phase 2 NS x 14 Current (per unit) x Nc In In 12 10 8 6 4 Neutral Current Phase Current Fig. 1 Solidly Earthed Star-Connected Windings With Earth Fault X Per Unit From the Neutral 2 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 From Fig. 1, it can be seen that the turns ratio (TR) is as follows: TR = and In N + Ns 1 = c = Ip Nc xDistance of fault from neutral (percent of winding) Fig. 2 Neutral Current vs. Distance From Star Point in a Solidly Earthed HV Star Transformer (1) I n = I p †¢ TR = Ip x (2) Where Nc = the number of turns on the common winding (on the shorted part of the winding) NS = the number of turns on the series winding (on the healthy part of the winding) x = the distance from the neutral (p. u. ) Ip = primary side current In = fault current Therefore, for faults close to the neutral (when x is very small, on the order of 0. 1 p. u. ), the current flowing in the neutral is In = Ip/0. 1 = 10 †¢ Ip.Clearly, the change in neutral current is much greater than the change in phase current. Fig. 2 shows the difference in neutral current and phase current, plotted as a function of the fault distance from the neutral point [1] [2] [3] [4]. This curve was obtained from tests that were performed on a solidly earthed star transformer. (Because results vary for different transformer designs, the authors were unable to locate a formula that accurately describes the theoretical earth-fault current for all transformers). Fig. 2 shows that the neutral current (that also flows through the neutral CT) is always very high, in excess of 5 to 6 p. . For faults closer to the phase terminal of the star winding, there is reduced current contribution from the transformer neutral. Relay sensitivity is still not compromised, be cause the operating current through the relay is the sum of the neutral and phase current, with the phase current now higher than for faults near the neutral. Therefore, in the case of a solidly earthed star winding, relay sensitivity is not a problem for faults near the neutral because there is always sufficient current flowing in the neutral CT and through the relay and varistor to ensure relay operation. ) Star Winding—Resistance Earthed In the case of a resistance-earthed star winding, the relationship between fault location and fault current is linear, and the value of the earthing resistance determines the amount of fault current. From Fig. 1, assuming that the neutral is earthed through a resistor, we can see that the following is true: In = x †¢V 3†¢R (3) Where In = fault current x = the distance from the neutral V = the healthy phase-to-phase voltage R = the value of the earthing resistor Equation 3 presents a linear relationship between the fault location and the neutral current available to operate the relay.For small values of x, In is small and there may not be sufficient current to operate the relay. Therefore, for a resistanceearthed star winding, relay sensitivity is important for faults near the neutral. The value of x where the relay will begin operation is related directly to the relay operating current and the CT characteristics, i. e. , how much magnetizing current the CTs on the healthy phases will require. 3) Delta Winding—NEC/R Earthed In the case of a delta winding, there is always sufficient voltage to drive fault current through the fault and NEC/R.In theory, there is always at least half the phase-to-earth voltage available to drive the fault. This results in sufficient fault current, and relay sensitivity is not an issue [3]. 3 Because delta-connected windings do not have a star point, you can use the so-called balanced earth-fault connection or hybrid REF protection function in cases where the source is on the delta side of the transformer. In this case, the neutral CT is excluded from the circuit and the three-phase CTs are all connected in parallel with the relay element.The zone of protection is still only the delta winding of the transformer. The balanced earth-fault connection may also be applied to an unearthed star winding. III. RESTRICTED EARTH-FAULT PROTECTION THEORY To apply REF protection on star-connected transformers, connect the three-phase CTs in star, and connect this combination to a CT in the neutral leg of the transformer, NER or NEC, as shown in Fig. 3. These CT connections provide a path for the zero-phase sequence currents to circulate in the CTs during external faults, but they force the current through the relay for internal faults.Therefore, the REF relay provides protection for all earth faults that fall in the area between the phase and neutral CTs. Any fault outside this area should be covered by alternative protection functions. Red White Blue IFp Inp Ins Relay Ins Fig. 5 Internal Fault Indicating Operation on a Delta Winding With NEC A hybrid REF protection function may also be applied to a delta winding without an NEC. The hybrid REF excludes the neutral CT from the circuit and the three phase CTs are all connected in parallel with the relay element. This is called a balanced earth-fault connection.The zone of protection is still only the delta winding of the transformer. The hybrid REF function can also be applied to an unearthed star winding. A. High-Impedance REF Relay Element The high-impedance REF relay is normally a currentoperated relay with a resistor in series that provides stabilization. Generally, it may be one of two different types. The first type has internal resistors and has a voltage setting. In this type, the resistors are effectively switched in and out to change the setting and therefore the value of the stabilizing voltage.The second type has an external variable resistor where the setting is calculated in ohms and applied by changing the resistance of the variable resistor. 1) Design Considerations A number of design considerations must be taken into consideration when designing a high-impedance REF scheme. The most important considerations are described here: †¢ The ratio of the phase and neutral CTs must always be the same. †¢ In general, the CTs should have the same saturation characteristics. †¢ The kneepoint voltage must be higher than the stabilization voltage for external faults. The voltage across the relay and CTs (all in parallel) should be kept at safe levels while still being sufficiently high to allow operation of the relay when required. The magnetizing current of the CTs depends on the voltage across it, but too high a voltage results in higher magnetizing current that leads to a less sensitive scheme. †¢ In most cases, a metal oxide varistor (MOV) or surge arrestor is connected across the parallel connection of the CTs and relay to clamp the voltage to a safe limit, without affecting relay operation.The MOV protects the relay against high voltages developed during inzone faults. Sufficient current still flows through the relay to ensure operation [5]. Relay Relay Fig. 3 Basic Design of an REF Function Fig. 4 shows an external earth fault on the star (source) side of a transformer, and Fig. 5 shows an in-zone fault on the delta side of a transformer. Currents are in per unit. In Fig. 4, the zero-sequence infeed for an upstream red phase-to-earth fault circulates between the neutral CT and the red-phase CT, and no operating current can flow through the relay element.In Fig. 5, in the case of the in-zone fault on the delta winding, it is clear that all the fault current flows through the neutral CT (IFp = Inp) and nothing flows in the phase CT. Therefore, the secondary CT current has to flow through the relay element for this element to operate. At this stage, we simplify the scenario by not taking into account the magnetization of the other CTs. Red White Blue IF Relay IF – Inp Inp Ins Inp Inp Ins Fig. 4 ing External Fault Indicating Relay Stability on a Star-Connected Wind- 2) Setting Considerations The high-impedance REF scheme is set such that it is stable for a maximum through fault with one of the CTs completely saturated. Calculate VS, the stabilizing voltage, as follows: Vs = I f max †¢ ( RCT + RL ) n (4) Another important factor in the design of an REF scheme is the minimum allowable knee-point voltage of the phase and neutral CTs. This value is necessary during the design phase of the high-impedance REF scheme to ensure adequately specified CTs.To ensure that the CT does not saturate at the operating voltage, many engineers use a safety factor of 2. The knee-point voltage can be calculated as follows: Where Vs = the stabilizing voltage Ifmax = the maximum through-fault current detectable by the relay RCT = the winding resistance of the CT RL = the total lead resistance of the longest cond uctor between the relay and neutral or phase CTs n = the turns ratio of the CT In cases where the earth-fault current is limited through an NER or NEC/R, use the three-phase fault current as the maximum condition.With all four CTs of the same ratio, we expect the phase CTs (not the neutral CT) to saturate for external faults, because the three-phase fault current is higher than the earth-fault current. Therefore, we can ignore the resistance of the leads between the saturated phase CT and the relay. (The saturated phase CT and the relay are not necessarily near each other, so the lead resistances between them are not negligible). Phase CTs are generally located in close proximity to one another, so lead resistances between these CTs are negligible.VS is the value of the stabilizing voltage across the relay for maximum through-fault current and one saturated CT. The relay setting, Vset, is still unknown. If the voltage applied to the relay exceeds Vset, we expect the relay to operate . The most sensitive setting that can be applied is Vset = VS. Because network parameters change (higher fault current for example), Vset is usually selected higher than VS to allow for a safety margin. To ensure greater stability, one would select relay operating current greater than the sum of the healthy phase CT magnetizing currents at the set voltage.This ensures that the largest part of the secondary side fault current is used for the purpose of operating the relay and that less current is used for magnetizing the CTs on the healthy phases. Any mismatch in CT ratio will result in spill current, part of which will flow through the relay. Spill current cannot be related to current that flows on the primary side and flows on the secondary side. It may, therefore, cause the flow of â€Å"fictitious† current that results from CT inaccuracy.Not all spill current will necessarily flow through the relay; some of the current also flows through CTs (phase and/or neutral) not carr ying primary fault current. Effectively, the spill current flowing through the relay raises the voltage across the relay and CTs, causing more magnetizing current to flow. In the case of a through fault, equilibrium is reached between the voltage, relay current, and magnetizing current. Generally, relay current is far less than the operating current, as explained in the calculation of the stabilizing voltage. Vk = 2 †¢ Vs (5)Where Vk = the kneepoint voltage of the CT Calculate Iop, the minimum primary operating current (primary sensitivity) that causes the relay to operate, as follows: I op = n †¢ ( I R + m †¢ I m + I v ) (6) Where IR = the relay operating current m = the number of CTs needing magnetization (generally three) Im = the magnetizing current at the set voltage (to be obtained from the magnetizing curve test results of the CTs) Iv = the varistor current at Vs [5] From this discussion, it should be clear that the desensitizing factors are the magnetizing cur rent Im and the varistor current Iv.Use Equation 7 to calculate the actual impedance of the REF element. Because Vset is the voltage above which the relay operates, and because the relay resistance is much greater than RCT and RL, you can calculate the relay resistance as follows: RR = Vset IR (7) Where RR = the relay resistance Vset and IR are as defined above To verify correct calculation of operating current, it is possible to calculate the voltage across the relay for a specific inzone fault current. If the voltage is above the set voltage, consider this as confirmation that the relay will operate.You can calculate the operating voltage as follows: (8) n Because the relay is set to be stable under conditions where one CT saturates, it needs no additional time delays to improve security or its operation. B. Low-Impedance REF Relay Element Low-impedance REF protection is provided with new numerical or microprocessor-based protection relays. Generally, relay manufacturers employ di fferent methods to provide REF protection. In most cases, operation of the low-impedance REF protection is based on the fundamental current, after filtering removes all harmonic currents [3]. Vop = ( I op ? †¢ n †¢ I m ? I v ) †¢ ( RCT + RL + RR ) 5 The most important difference between classical highimpedance REF protection and new low-impedance REF protection is the input impedance. As with all numerical relays, the input impedance of the low-impedance REF is very low compared to high-impedance relays. For example, a lowimpedance relay typically has an input impedance of 0. 1 VA. At 1 A nominal rating, this computes to 0. 1 W. On the other hand, for a high-impedance REF relay with a voltage setting of 100 V and a 20 mA operating current, the input impedance is 5 kW. This is a significant difference.Low-impedance REF protection does not have the same inherent stability against CT saturation for external faults as does high-impedance REF protection. A second significa nt difference is that the operating current of the low-impedance REF protection is not realized by CT connection. With low-impedance REF, the relay measures all four CTs necessary to realize the element. Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 show the wiring and CT connections of the low-impedance REF elements. Fig. 6 shows the fault currents for an external fault on the primary star-connected side of a transformer, and Fig. shows an external fault on the secondary deltaconnected side of the transformer. Inp Red White Blue Ins IF + A Red White Blue Ins + A Inp Ins + Fault IF + B + C N Ins Inp IF – Inp Inp Fig. 8 Low-Impedance REF Connections With Internal Earth Fault on a Star-Connected Winding Red White Blue + + C B A IF Fault IF Ins N Ins Fig. 9 Low-Impedance REF Connections With Internal Earth Fault on a Delta-Connected Winding With NEC + B + C + IF – Inp Inp Fault Location B N Ins Inp Fig. 6 Low-Impedance REF Connections With External Earth Fault on a Star-Connected WindingA very impor tant advantage of low-impedance REF protection is the fact that the CT ratios for the phase CTs and neutral CTs do not have to be the same. Most low-impedance REF relays use an operating and a restraint current. The difference between different relays from different manufacturers lies in the way these relays determine the restraint quantities and in the CT saturation detection algorithm of each relay. Note that, in the case of low-impedance REF protection, there is no inherent immunity to CT saturation, as is the case with high-impedance REF protection.The following different methods are used to determine the restraint and operating current: Use of the residual current Ir = Ia + Ib + Ic as the restraint current and the differential current Id = Ia + Ib + Ic – In as the operating current. (9) 2. Use of the residual current Ir = Ia + Ib + Ic as the operating current and the neutral current In as the restraint current. (10) From Fig. 7, it may be seen that Ia = Ib = 0 for a blue -phase out-of-zone fault on the delta side of the transformer. From this, it is clear that |Ic| = |IF| = |Ins|.From Equation 9 above, one can see that the differential current can be defined as follows: Id = Ia + Ib + Ic – In = 0 + 0 +(–Ins) – (–Ins) = 0 and Ir = Ia + Ib + Ic = –Ins This shows clearly that there is restraint current but no differential or operating current for an external fault. From Equation 9 it can be shown that the following relationships are true: Id = Ins and Ir = 0 1. Ins C + B + A Ins IF N IF Fault Location Fig. 7 Low-Impedance REF Connections With External Earth Fault on a Delta-Connected Winding With NEC Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 show the same relay and CT connections for a low-impedance REF relay.They also show the current flow for in-zone faults on the primary star-connected and secondary delta-connected sides of the transformer, respectively. 6 This means that, while there is a large amount of differential or operating current , there is no restraining current. This can be shown similarly for in-zone and external faults on the star side of the transformer. Because of the nature of the protection, classical lowimpedance REF protection cannot be used as a balanced earthfault protection on an unearthed transformer or on a transformer with only three phase CTs and no neutral CT.In short, it is because the low-impedance REF protection requires a restraint and an operating current, at least one of which is also derived from the neutral CT. When a neutral CT is not provided, a low-impedance REF protection cannot be used to protect an unearthed transformer. However, most numerical relays provide a number of protection elements for each winding. To realize balanced earth-fault protection on an unearthed star-connected transformer or a delta-connected transformer, connect the CTs as explained under Delta Winding—NEC/R Earthed, and associate the CT input with an earth-fault element in the relay. ) Design Cons iderations Because of the inherently unstable nature of the lowimpedance REF element, it may misoperate during external faults, especially in the case of faults not involving earth as phase-to-phase and three-phase faults, when one of the phase CTs saturates. Various manufacturers of REF protection relays have each developed additional supervision elements to improve security during external faults while improving sensitivity during in-zone faults. All these relays scale the CT ratios automatically between the phase and neutral CTs to compare the different values on an equal basis. ) Product A [6] [7] This relay makes use of the direction change of the operating current for in-zone and external faults. It derives a zerosequence operating current from the phase CTs (Ir = Ia + Ib + Ic) and a polarizing current from the neutral CT (In). It then compares the direction of operating (Ir) and polarizing (In) currents. CT saturation logic is necessary to determine whether any existing zero- sequence operating current is from saturation of one or more CTs during a three-phase fault, or from an actual earth fault. CT saturation detection comes from a positivesequence restraint factor supervising the REF operation.The relay compares the positive-sequence current multiplied by the positive-sequence restraint factor (generally set to approximately 0. 1) with the zero-sequence operating current. For earth faults, the positive-sequence and zero-sequence currents are equal, so the result of this comparison will always be a logical 0, indicating no CT saturation. If zero-sequence exists as a result of CT saturation, CT saturation detection asserts whenever the ratio of zero-sequence to positive-sequence current is less than the positive-sequence restraint factor.Using the reasoning that current must flow in the transformer neutral for an earth fault, the relay enables the REF element only if the neutral current exceeds a threshold. Supervising the REF element with the neutral c urrent provides additional security against zero-sequence current in the line CTs resulting from CT saturation. Therefore, the relay enables the REF element only if the line CTs measure zero-sequence current and if the current in the neutral CT exceeds a pickup setting. The zero-sequence current pickup setting is therefore also the relay sensitivity.The zero-sequence pickup must be set higher than any natural zero-sequence current caused by load, CT mismatch/spill current, or any other unbalance. The minimum operating current of the relay is 5 percent of rated current (In). The directional element then compares the operating (residual phase current) and polarizing (neutral) currents and indicates a forward or reverse direction. A forward direction indication is for an in-zone fault, and a reverse direction is for an external fault.The fault is said to be in-zone when the residual and neutral currents are in phase; it is reversed if the residual and neutral currents are 180 ° out o f phase. b) Product B The basic principle of operation for this relay is to compare the residual (restraint) current Ir = Ia + Ib + Ic with the differential current Id = Ia + Ib + Ic – In, Where Ia, Ib, and Ic = the respective phase currents the neutral current flowing in the transIn = former as a result of the fault The relay compensates internally for the difference in CT ratios between phase and neutral CTs.In addition, the relay has a biased differential characteristic that you can set in such a way that the relay is desensitized for big differences in CT specifications and subsequent quiescent spill current under normal load conditions. In this case, the relay achieves stability for a through fault by increasing the restraint current when it detects a fault. The bias setting should still be set as sensitive as possible to ensure relay operation for most faults. The biased differential characteristic of this relay has a fixed slope of 1. 05 p. u. The relay will trip if 1) Id / Ir exceeds 1. 5 and 2) Id exceeds the Id pickup or threshold setting. The purpose of the restraint function is to compensate for CT errors and mismatches and to ensure stability during maximum through-fault conditions. The latter may cause CT saturation, and the bias characteristic provides additional stability against CT saturation. The relay has a minimum operating current of 5 percent of nominal current, or 0. 05 In. c) Product C [8] Similarly to Product A above, this relay uses the residual current calculated from the three phase CTs where Ir = Ia + Ib + Ic and the neutral current In for the REF protection.During an in-zone fault, neutral current will always flow irrespective of the transformer winding connection and earthing arrangement. The residual current depends on the transformer winding connection and earthing arrangement. In this case, if residual current exists, it will be in phase with the neutral current. During an external fault, the neutral and residual curren ts will be equal in magnitude and 180 ° out of phase. The relay uses In only as the operating current, and this current is always present during an in-zone fault. The relay pro- 7 ides a stabilizing method for CT saturation for through faults. Both the current magnitude and phase of the residual and neutral currents stabilize the REF protection. The stabilizing or restraint current is defined as follows: I res = k †¢ (| 3I n ? 3I r | ? | 3I n + 3I r |) (11) Where k = a stabilization factor In and Ir are as defined previously An examination of Equation 11 for both internal and external faults reveals that there is no effective restraint for internal faults because the value of restraint is always negative for internal faults.Therefore, the relay has maximum sensitivity, and small earth-fault currents can cause tripping of REF protection. The restraint for external faults is always positive and larger than the operating current, if the operating and restraint quantities are eit her in phase or 180 ° out of phase. During CT saturation, these angles may be different, resulting in reduced restraint for external faults. To prevent reduction of restraint, the relay calculates the angle between the operating and restraint quantities and then allows operation for a certain angle range and blocks operation for another angle range.For this specific relay, the angle is fixed at 110 °. No operation is possible if the angle between the operating and restraint quantities is greater than 110 °, irrespective of any other values of operating and restraint current magnitude. The stabilizing factor (k) is equal to 2 and is fixed. The relay provides further supervision by comparing the neutral current with the sum of the magnitudes of the three phase currents and the neutral current. The relay provides a settable pickup and slope and allows tripping above the characteristic.The relay has a minimum operating current of 5 percent of nominal current, or 0. 05 In. d) Produ ct D [9] The supplier markets this product as an â€Å"earth differential function† with an additional directional check. The relay, therefore, uses a typical biased differential earth-fault characteristic supervised by a directional element. The relay calculates the bias and differential current, where the differential current is the vector difference between the neutral current (measured by the neutral CT) and the residual current where Ir = Ia + Ib + Ic.The bias current is the highest of the three phase currents and the neutral current. The relay has a base sensitivity range of 5 percent (maximum sensitivity) to 50 percent (minimum sensitivity) for the differential current. This sensitivity value is valid from 0 to 1. 25 p. u. bias current. The bias characteristic has two slopes. The first slope is fixed at 70 percent, and the second is fixed at 100 percent. The first slope is valid from 1. 25 p. u. to a point corresponding to a 1 p. u. differential current. The second slo pe is valid beyond 1. 25 p. u.The directional element uses the neutral current as a reference because direction for this current is always the same for both in-zone and external faults. The relay compares the residual current with the neutral current in the vector plane. For an internal fault, the residual and neutral currents are out of phase. For an external fault, the residual and neutral currents are in phase. For the directional element, the relay compares the second harmonic current in the neutral CT with the fundamental component. If the second harmonic current is greater than a pre-set value, the REF element is disabled.This is a form of second harmonic blocking that provides additional security against operation during inrush but increased dependability during inzone faults. The relay has a minimum operating current of 5 percent of nominal current, or 0. 05 In. e) Product E [10] This relay calculates the differential current as Id = Ia + Ib + Ic + In and the residual curren t as Ir = Ia + Ib + Ic. Restraining current is the maximum of the positive-sequence, negativesequence, or zero-sequence current in the residual current. During external faults, the zero-sequence component of the residual current provides maximum restraint.The relay calculates the zero-sequence component as the amplitude of the vector difference between the neutral and residual current. During an external fault, the neutral and residual currents are in phase, so the resulting bias will be twice the neutral current. For an in-zone fault, the residual and neutral currents are out of phase so the restraint will be less than the neutral current. As previously stated, an external phase-to-phase fault can cause misoperation because of CT saturation. The negativesequence restraining quantity provides maximum restraint during such an external phase-to-phase fault.This relay uses a method where the level of restraint increases after a number of cycles. This method ensures the most sensitive r elay operation upon energization of a faulty transformer. When the restraint increases, security improves for external faults. The positive-sequence restraining quantity is intended to provide maximum restraint during symmetrical conditions such as three-phase faults and load. The relay uses a complicated algorithm to determine the value of the positive restraint component. Discussion of this algorithm is beyond the scope of this paper.The relay has a conventional bias characteristic with a pickup setting and slope setting. Both settings can be modified. 2) Setting Considerations for Maximum Sensitivity Some product-specific setting considerations have been discussed previously in this paper. Most relays have a minimum pickup level of 50 mA. Although all low-impedance REF relays this paper discusses have additional supervision for improved security, many manufacturers recommend a pickup setting greater than the steady-state neutral current resulting from load unbalance (quiescent ze ro-sequence current).This ensures that the relay picks up for actual faults, not for load unbalance. This practice reduces scheme sensitivity, because a greater operating current setting increases the minimum primary operating current. In cases where a biased earth differential protection is provided, the bias setting serves mainly to prevent the relay from operating for external faults resulting from CT saturation and other lesser important factors. These characteristics are fairly 8 fixed, and security against operation for external faults is almost guaranteed. IV.SENSITIVITY ISSUES This paper stated previously that relay sensitivity is not of great concern for faults on either solidly earthed star windings or impedance-earthed delta windings. There is always sufficient current to drive the operating element of the relay to ensure operation. Factors affecting REF scheme sensitivity are CT quality or specification, the magnetizing current the healthy phase CTs draw during a fault, the relay operating current, and the resistance earthing of the star-connected transformer. CT performance impacts greatly the sensitivity of the REF element.Lesser-quality CTs can make low-impedance REF protection more sensitive, because the operating voltage is lower and the CTs on the healthy phases draw less magnetizing current. Equation 6 provides relay sensitivity for both highimpedance and low-impedance REF, with slight variations between the two. The equation is valid for the high-impedance REF sensitivity calculation. In the case of low-impedance REF sensitivity, the varistor current is excluded and the relay does not have an operating voltage. Therefore, the magnetizing current is not the current the healthy phase CTs would draw at the operating voltage.A voltage equal to the sum of the lead and relay resistances multiplied by the fault current would appear across the healthy CTs. The magnetizing current of all CTs at this voltage should be added to the relay operating cur rent to determine the relay sensitivity. The lowimpedance REF measuring element will develop a much lower voltage across the healthy CTs and the magnetizing current necessary for those CTs will be substantially less than for the high-impedance REF case. Although the low-impedance REF relay minimum operating current is as much as 50 mA, the reduction in magnetizing current compensates for the greater pickup threshold.For example, assume that the CTs in a high-impedance REF scheme draw 15 mA magnetizing current at the operating voltage, and the relay operating current is 20 mA. It follows then that the total secondary current should be 4 †¢ 15 + 20 = 80 mA. The corresponding primary current must drive sufficient operating current through the relay to produce the magnetizing current necessary for the CTs to operate the relay. With a 200/1 CT ratio (impedance-earthed transformer), there is an implied minimum primary operating current of 16 A.For a typical 355 A NER, the only part o f the winding that is not covered, assuming zero fault resistance, is the bottom 16 / 355 †¢ 100 = 4. 5 percent. Taking the same example, assume that the CTs in a lowimpedance scheme draw only 2 mA magnetizing current because of the lower voltage across the CTs and the relay draws 50 mA. It follows then that the total secondary current should be 4 †¢ 2 + 50 = 58 mA. With the same CT ratio and NER as in the previous example, the minimum primary operating current is 11. 6 A. Clearly, the low-impedance REF function is more sensitive in this case. However, if the CTs used with the high- mpedance REF were of better quality and the magnetizing current were also 2 mA, the high-impedance REF relay would be more sensitive. In this case, (assuming zero fault resistance) the bottom 11. 6 / 355 †¢ 100 = 3. 3 percent of the winding is not covered. The transformer protection philosophy [11] of Eskom Distribution Division requires that the REF sensitivity for resistance-earthed star -connected windings be such that it can be set to pick up for faults between 10 percent and 25 percent of the maximum available earth-fault current for an earth fault on the transformer terminals.With this in mind, one can perform the necessary calculations to determine an adequate CT ratio and whether to apply high-impedance or low-impedance REF protection. As a general rule of thumb for high-impedance REF protection, the relay operating current should be greater than the sum of the CT magnetizing currents at the set voltage, i. e. , more fault current should be used to operate the relay than to magnetize the CTs on the healthy phases. This generally ensures greater stability. V. APPLICATION ASPECTS As we concluded previously, sensitivity becomes a concern only on resistance-earthed star windings.It is only in this case that the application of high-impedance vs. low-impedance REF protection must be considered. There are two important factors that may influence the decision. A. The Quality and Specification of the Available CTs Good-quality CTs with a very steep and linear magnetizing curve indicate CTs that require very little magnetizing current throughout most of the operating range. Poor-quality CTs require more magnetizing current. Perform calculations according to the specific CTs in use for a specific installation to determine the suitability of high-impedance vs. ow-impedance REF protection for the application. Perform this calculation as described under sensitivity issues. B. The Availability of Matching CT Ratios If the existing equipment is of such a nature that the same ratios are not available for both phase and neutral CTs, you should use low-impedance REF protection, because this type of protection can handle different CT ratios for phase and neutral CTs. However, if the same ratios are available for both phase and neutral CTs, further investigation should reveal whether high-impedance or low-impedance REF is the most suitable for the applicatio n.VI. CONCLUSIONS There is a general belief among many engineers that the fault current for faults close to the neutral point of a starconnected transformer is very small and insufficient to operate the REF protection. This is true only for resistance-earthed star-connected transformers. This paper makes no ruling on whether low-impedance or high-impedance REF protection is the better method, but it 9 provides the information and methods for choosing the more appropriate relay for a particular application.REF scheme sensitivity is a problem only on star windings with resistance earthing, because the fault current is a function of fault position, phase-to-neutral voltage, and earthing resistance value. For faults close to neutral, the fault current is very small. The relay operating current and CT magnetizing current are important in determining the winding coverage. In cases where there is always sufficient fault current to operate the REF relay, the choice between high-impedance an d low-impedance REF is not important.Issues such as available CT ratios for the phase and neutral CTs may dictate the choice. For poor-quality CTs that require larger magnetizing current than a better-quality CT at the same voltage, the lowimpedance REF element is more sensitive. Where you use good-quality CTs, however, the high-impedance REF relay is more sensitive. VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank the following persons for their valuable contributions: Paul Gerber for his sensitivity calculations. Mike Everton for various discussions on the topic. Veronica van Zweel for the drawings.VIII. REFERENCES GEC Alsthom Measurements Limited, Protective Relays Application Guide, 3rd edition, 1990. [2] D. Robertson, ed. Power System Protection Reference Manual, Reyrolle Protection, Chapter 6, Stockfield: Oriel Press. [3] P. Bertrand, B. Gotzig, and C. Vollet, â€Å"Low Impedance Restricted Earth Fault Protection,† in Developments in Power System Protection, Conference P ublication No. 479, IEE, 2001. [4] SEL-387 Relay Training, Restricted Earth Fault Protection, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories Inc. , Rev 0. 0, July 2001. [5] P. E.Sutherland, PE (SM), â€Å"Application of Transformer Ground Differential Protection Relays,† presented at the Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Technical Conference, Sparks, NV, 1999. [6] A. Guzman and L. S. Anderson, â€Å"Restricted Earth Fault Protection for Auto-Transformers Using a Directional Element. † Available at www. selinc. com [7] SEL-387-0, -5, -6 Instruction Manual, Current Differential Relay, Overcurrent Relay, Data Recorder, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Date Code 20040628. [8] SIPROTEC, Differential Protection Manual, 7UT612, V4. , C53000– G1176–C148–1, Siemens. [9] Application Manual, ProtectIT Transformer Protection Terminal, RET521*2. 5, 1MRK 504 037-UEN, ABB. [10] T60 Transformer Management Relay, UR Series Instruction Manual, T60 Revision 4. 0x, Man ual P/N: 1601-0090-G1 (GEK-106490), GE Multilin, 2004 [11] P. A. Gerber, SCSAGAAG0 Rev 3, Transformer Protection Philosophy, Eskom Distribution Division, 2001. [12] Mini APPS Course (Analysis & Protection of Power Systems), vol 1, Section 9, Transformer Protection, 25 February to 1 March 1996. 1] Protection Field Engineer. He is currently a Chief Engineer: Protection Specialist in Resources and Strategy, a Corporate Division of Eskom Holdings Limited. He is responsible for Distribution Division National Contracts for protection schemes and equipment, general protection technology direction setting and technology management, and the implementation of Distribution Automation and Substation Automation in Eskom’s Distribution Division.He has authored a number of protection and substation automation related papers. He is a Registered Professional Engineer in South Africa. Casper Labuschagne earned his Diploma (1981) and Masters Diploma (1991) in Electrical Engineering from Vaal Tr iangle Technicon, South Africa. After gaining 20 years of experience with the South African utility Eskom, where he served as Senior Advisor in the protection design department, he began work at SEL in 1999 as a Product Engineer in the Substation Equipment Engineering group.Presently, he is Lead Engineer in the Research and Development group. He is registered as a Professional Technologist with ECSA, the Engineering Counsel of South Africa, and has authored and coauthored several technical papers. IX. BIOGRAPHIES Izak van der Merwe obtained his B. Eng (Electrical) degree from the University of Stellenbosch in 1991. He started to work for Eskom in 1993 as a  © 2005, 2007 by Eskom Enterprises and Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc. All rights reserved. 20070711 †¢ TP6207-01

John Wooden, Wooden on Leadership

John Wooden on Leadership I am informing the SAI that Wooden on Leadership by John Wooden is a book that demonstrates and shows leadership skills. John Wooden started his leadership in 1932 at football practice in Kentucky as the coach. He then went on to become head coach At UCLA in 1949. While at UCLA Wooden wrote his fifteen steps of leadership. Wooden’s pyramid of success not only helped his team, but his own life. The first block on the pyramid is to be industrious. Wooden grew up on a small farm and learned you had to be up early and work very late.A normal person will complain when tired, but an industrious person will work hard and strive for the best that they can achieve. One should not want to stop when they can, but work all the way through until the job is done even if the person is tired and weak because they strive to complete whatever is needed. A person should be focused on the objective and not what they want to do later. While being industrious, a person als o needs to have enthusiasm. As a leader a person must be filled with energy and love what they are doing. If a leader has enthusiasm for what they are doing their followers will too.Being enthused can make or break whether the job is completed. A person’s enthusiasm can turn a boring or failing job into a well working successful accomplishment. A job should always be done with eagerness to show that you care. Friendship plays a big role in the success of leadership. A person should not bring or hold their â€Å"favorites† above any one when it comes to leadership just because they are your friend doesn’t make them the best person to complete your goal. A person should stay professional when around friends, but still treat the friends equal to the other subordinates.Seek to find the strengths of friendships among the group and do what is necessary to keep the job going. Don’t judge a person’s ability to tribute to the team because you don’t k now them as well as the others around you. When being the leader you should always show loyalty to a fellow member. When you show loyalty to you team, you will receive loyalty back. A leader has to search their people to find loyalty and gain their interest of wanting to succeed. When a person is in a group doing a job, they want to have loyalty spread through the effort.A leader should not only be loyal to their group, but also themselves. To accomplish an objective a person must have cooperation with his/her people. Cooperation is the key to allowing a job to be complete. Nothing can be fully done without cooperation of a team. When cooperation is being executed the job becomes easier because more opinions allow for all the problems to be solved. When I becomes we more is done and more can be dealt with. A leader needs to have a lot of self-control to overcome challenges. Self-control makes a good leader because they set the example.When a leader has self-control, it allows for th e team to have self-control as well. Focusing on controlling yourself when times are hard in completing an objective by controlling yourself can make the outcome easier to obtain in the end. Self-control brings self-discipline which a leader has to show allowing the followers to have a person to reflect from. As a leader works with his/her followers they always need to have alertness. When a leader’s is gifted with alertness, it comes in handy on supervising if and when you need to switch out the jobs of your followers to allow the group to grow as one.Alertness is essential to finding the trend, opportunities, and changes that can or should be made to make a better organization to complete what needs to be done. A leader must evaluate their team to know the advantages and disadvantages so the problem can be faced with the most critical way to strive and obtain the goal. A leader can have a potential weapon if he/she is alert on a constant basis. A leader must be a risk taker and strive for initiative. If a follower fails to take initiative then it falls back on the leader because the leader did not force the player to take initiative and run with it.Failure is necessary to the initiative of ending with successfulness. A leader with initiative also has courage in that his/her group will strive to do the very best. A team that makes the most mistakes to complete the goal usually wins in the end whether it is winning a game or making the deadline. Without intentness the team would soon rather quit and give up on accomplishing what needs to be done. A leader with intentness may not complete all short term goals, but will make up double with the end result. If the leader makes a goal, it may take time because all good things will take time as well as willingness to make the goal.Always fight for the best because you will always come out better in the end. Intentness will make a team strive even when times are hard and seem like all else fails. Conditioning all around is one of the centers of the thing that is demanded from a team. Not only physical condition, but mental plays a big part of the successfulness in a team. When a leader has conditioning all around, he can bend and squeeze his/ her way to show what is best for the team. A team uses moderation to condition the way things are done to allow the best way possible to prevail.Condition from a leader can make a team grow together as one and always succeed. A team always needs skill as well as team spirit. Team spirit comes from the skill of the group. A team’s skill comes from each individual and they work together to succeed. Skill comes from each individual and the leader has to make everyone work together to complete the task. Team spirit only comes when a team’s skill works together. A team’s greatest strength is staying poise and having confidence. Poise is staying calm when under pressure and a leader should make his team just be their selves.When a tea m is poise, they have confidence that they will strive for the best. A leader will always have confidence that his team will do the right thing. Being poise in every situation will, take a group succeed. Competitive greatness is the final step of the pyramid. Always be the best that you can be. Never settle for the least and always strive for the goal and completing the task. Wooden closes with saying that you always work with your team to be successful. A leader has to have these characteristics to be able to lead a group to complete their goals and be the best they can be.

coliesum essays

coliesum essays Construction of the Coliseum, or Flavian Amphitheater, was begun by Vespasiano c.72 A.D. and inaugurated by his son Titus in 80 A.D. Built on marshy land between the Esquiline and Caelian Hills, it was the first permanent amphitheater to be built in Rome. Its monumental size and grandeur as well as its practical and efficient organization for producing spectacles and controlling the large crowds make it one of the great architectural monuments achieved by the ancient Romans. The Coliseum is a vast ellipse with tiers of seating for 50,000 spectators around a central elliptical arena. Below the wooden arena floor, there is a complex set of rooms and passageways designed for wild beasts and other provisions for staging the spectacles. Eighty walls radiate from the arena and support vaults for passageways, stairways and the tiers of seats. At the outer edge circular arcades link each level as well as stairways between levels. The three tiers of arcades are faced by three-quarter c olumns and entablatures, Doric columns in the first story, Ionic columns in the second and Corinthian columns in the third. Above them is an attic story with Corinthian pilasters and small square window openings in alternate bays. At the top brackets and sockets carry the masts from which a canopy for shade was suspended. Small differences in some details of the construction have convinced archaeologists that the building of the Coliseum was entrusted to four different contractors, working side by side in the four quadrants of the amphitheatre. The names of the architects are not known. The idea that thousands of slaves were employed has been rejected, since the quality of the construction is proof of the specialization of the work force. Once completed, the foundation base was covered by a travertine floor, 90 cm thick in average. On this stone floor the reference point for the main pillars were marked, and the base blocks of the pillars were anch...

Feng Shui House Layout and Big Brother

Feng Shui House Layout and Big Brother The ancient principles of feng shui involve many complicated rules about colors, forms, and spacial design. However, you can incorporate positive chi (energy) into your home by following some simple guidelines. Feng shui masters also believe that you can purposely misuse rules to create chaos, as they do on the Big Brother reality television shows around the world. Feng shui principles can be applied to existing structures, but its much easier to consider placement and architectural elements at the design level. First, select a square or rectangular lot which is level. The square shape provides earthy stability to the overall home. Water views are especially desirable, but dont get too close. Place your front door so that it is easily accessible from the road. However, the pathway to your door should not form a straight line. Also, build only one front door. Never build double doors or two front entryways. Also, avoid rock gardens or obstructions near the entryway. Keep hedges trimmed back. Consult a bagua chart to select the most harmonious placement of rooms. The round bagua can be redrawn into a nine-grid square map that is easily adaptable to the square or rectangular home. Pay special attention to the placement of doors, windows, and stairways. Avoid long corridors and awkward or cramped floor plans. Strive for high, well-lit ceilings. Always seek clean lines and open spaces. Try to keep your new home free of clutter and debris. Consider the relationship between light, color, and mood. Avoid strong overhead lighting and dark, monotone color schemes. Shift the energy of your home with color. Most importantly, listen closely to your instincts. What room arrangements make you feel most comfortable? If your architect does not embrace feng shui ideas, consider hiring a feng shui consultant to assist during the design process. Be sure to fill your home with love and light. Honor it with a celebration. Big Brother Television: Feng Shui Gone Wrong Feng shui aspires to create harmony in your home. What happens when designers deliberately break the rules? The set for the splash TV series Big Brother is a lesson in bad feng shui. When it aired in Europe and then Great Britain back in 2000, the television show Big Brother became the worlds most widely viewed docudrama - a chance for voyeurs to watch real people living inside a camera-filled house during prime time, five nights a week. Now, the Big Brother reality series franchise has spread to the United States, bringing with it a new way of thinking about home design. The concept for the Big Brother show is Orwellian: Ten strangers spend three months under 24-hour surveillance in a bare-basics, 1,800 square foot house. There are two bedrooms furnished with six twin beds and two bunk beds. The bathroom has one toilet, one shower, a washboard and a washtub. The house is equipped with twenty-eight cameras, sixty microphones and sixty-nine camera windows and two-way mirrors. Nine windows face the yard. Big Brother Living Room, 2000. Chris Weeks/Getty Images (cropped) Bad Feng Shui? These factors alone are enough to make most people uneasy. But, to add to the general unrest, designers who created the house for the American version of the show have admitted to using feng shui ideas - to purposely create disharmony!  Follow the rules, and you will have harmony in your home, say feng shui believers. Break the rules to see the impact of disharmonious design. The Front Door The front door to your home should always be protected, say feng shui designers. Curving pathways to the entrance protect the home from angular energy. However, the long path that leads to the Big Brother house is like an arrow, pointing accusingly at the front door. Definitely bad feng shui. The Living Room The heart of family life, the living room is where you should be able to relax and enjoy companionship. Feng shui experts strive to facilitate a positive flow of energy through this area. But in the Big Brother living room, designers worked to do just the opposite. Windows and doors are located on the north wall. There is no exit on the south side. Since energy must enter and exit through the same path, there is constant confusion and conflict. The presence of cameras and two-way mirrors add to this dynamic. Feng shui designers often use mirrors to direct energy, and in the Big Brother living room, mirrors are placed directly across from the large windows on the north-facing wall. By reflecting and intensifying energy waves, these mirrors create perpetual disturbance. Big Brother Seventh Edition, Telecinco Channel TV in Spain. Jose R. Aguirre/Getty Images The Bedroom Your bedroom is a place of rest, privacy, intimacy and refuge. If this room is not a place of harmony, the negative energy will harm your marriage, your home life and your physical well-being, say feng shui pros. In the Big Brother house, the mens bedroom is in a secure location beyond the living area. Although it is not protected from the gaze of Big Brother, its positioning does offer some security. However, the womens bedroom is deliberately placed to create a sense of exposure and vulnerability. It is located directly across from the front door. The Red Room One of the most important, and most turbulent, spaces in the Big Brother house is the Red Room. Here the occupants communicate with Big Brother, seek counsel from a doctor or psychologist, or speak privately with the TV producers. Designers drew upon feng shui principles to create dissonance. First of all, the color scheme is disharmonious. The dark reds and wine shades emphasize the power of Big Brother. Moreover, the small room has only one chair. Visitors must sit with their backs to the door, facing a mirror, where they are certain to feel vulnerable. Colors Color sends strong messages. Change the shade of your walls and doors and your life is transformed, say feng shui believers. For the Big Brother house, designers used color to influence the emotional tone. In stark contrast to the disharmonious Red Room, many other areas of the house are painted soft yellow and muted gray. According to feng shui, the color yellow corresponds to the Five Energies - Fire, Earth, Metal, Water and Wood. Yellow is considered appropriate for kitchens, but confusing and unrestful for living areas. The color gray is said to promote introspection. By painting the bathroom mostly gray, the Big Brother designers gave the house occupants a much-needed relief from the overall atmosphere of discord. A fire red bedroom promotes insomnia. Bedroom for Londons Big Brother 2. Dave Hogan/Getty Images Lighting Light is energy, and feng shui designers pay attention to its effects. Harsh overhead lights are to be avoided at all costs. Even when the lights are turned off, energy will stream through the electrical circuitry, creating dissonance. Early episodes of Big Brother show a house with diffused lighting which softly glows from a border around each room. This ensures crisp video images, and also helps create a calm, comfortable environment. So it happens that the lighting of the initial houses was the only aspect of the the Big Brother house that truly expressed good feng shui. They changed that design quickly. The 10 greatest moments on Big Brother involve the personalities of the contestants and not the architecture of the house. The success of reality television is all about outrageous behavior. If you can design a home that promotes eye-catching human reactions and responses, youve got a television smash hit on your hands.

Amtrak Announces Half Price Fares for Students

Amtrak Announces Half Price Fares for Students Since 2003, Amtrak, the nations passenger rail service,  has offered 50% discount fares to high school juniors and seniors traveling to prospective college campuses. With the start of a new school year just around the corner, millions of American high school students visit colleges throughout the nation trying to decide where to continue their education. Amtrak hopes their Campus Visit Discount Coupon program will help make those often stressful trips more convenient and economical. Available to high school juniors and seniors traveling to prospective college campuses, the coupons provide a 50 percent discount on coach class travel for the student and up to two parents or legal guardians. The coupons are good for travel on most Amtrak trains nationwide. Choosing a university is a major decision, and a visit is an ideal way to sample college life and see a campus up-close, stated Barbara J. Richardson, Amtraks vice president of marketing and sales, in and Amtrak press release. Whether its a nearby state university or a parents alma mater thousands of miles away, chances are the school is near one of the more than 500 destinations served by Amtrak. With Amtraks Campus Visit Discount Coupon, high school juniors and seniors may visit a college or university and receive 50 percent off the best available fare on Amtrak. The coupon may be used with tickets purchased now through December 8, 2003 for travel through December 15, 2003. How to Get the Coupons To get a Campus Visit Discount Coupon, simply visit the Amtrak Campus Visit website, click on the Amtrak coupon link on the home page, download the file and print a coupon. Original copies of the Campus Visit Discount Coupon must be presented at the time reservations are ticketed. No copies will be accepted. After printing a coupon, students need to simply obtain their high school counselors signature on the coupon and make a train reservation by calling Amtrak at 1-800-USA-RAIL. When making a reservation, students should tell the agent that they are using a Campus Visit Discount Coupon and mention discount code H178. Reservations for travel purchased with the coupon may not be made online. To ticket a reservation, visit any staffed Amtrak station or a local travel agent with the signed coupon. Complete instructions on redeeming an Amtrak Campus Visit Discount Coupon may be found at http:// www.campusvisit.com or by calling 1-781-431-7755. The coupon is also available from: bostonvisit.comhttp:// www.onebigcampus.com; andthecollegecity.com The Fine Print Reservations are required at least seven days prior to travel, and the student and parents or guardians must travel together on the same itinerary. Tickets may be upgraded to business class or to include sleeping accommodations upon payment of the applicable charges. The special fares are not available on Acela Express, Metroliner, Auto Train, Downeaster, peak departures of Amtraks Regional service in the Northeast or any departure requiring the purchase of a peak or unrestricted fare. Blackout dates and other restrictions do apply. The coupon may not be used in conjunction with any other discounts or promotions. Tickets are non-refundable once purchased, and no changes to the itinerary may be made once travel has begun.

The Cask of the Amontillado, by Edgar Allen Poe Term Paper

The Cask of the Amontillado, by Edgar Allen Poe - Term Paper Example Some literary experts suggested Poe got his idea for this story from being a former mason. The Cask of Amontillado fascinated its readers for the gruesome death of its victim. The manner of death was being entombed or buried alive by enclosure within a concrete wall. The technical term for this manner of execution is immurement, but there is a big difference in this death from being merely buried alive, such as being put into the ground. Immurement is a particularly painful and slow death due to dehydration and starvation, a manner of torture. A person buried alive dies from asphyxiation and death is much quicker, while being entombed through immurement signifies a lingering death which could take days or weeks. A lot of myths, stories and legends surround this manner of execution by immurement among a lot of people, especially in southeastern Europe due to superstitious beliefs arising from cases of bad luck in which buildings and bridges collapse inexplicably for no apparent reason at all. This short story can be better understood if viewed within the times it was written. It was a time of frenetic construction activities since this period coincided with rise of Industrial Revolution in which men and machines were able to build at a much greater pace. However, a superstition prevails in which a human sacrifice is sometimes needed to make the construction a success, and this gave rise to the various urban legends about immurement. This may partly explain the popularity of The Cask of Amontillado when it was published in 1846. Personal conflict – the protagonist and the antagonist in this short story engaged in a conflict that was personal in nature. In Montresor, as the storys narrator and also its criminal, author Poe implied some motive to his crime but it was not stated clearly what the reason was. The motive was vague and Poe merely left it to the readers to

Peter the Great's Reformation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Peter the Great's Reformation - Essay Example Peter instituted state wide reformation from military ranks to beard taxation, all of which helped Westernize Russia. These westernizing reformations forced Russia modernize, and adoption of European culture whether the people liked it or not. Peter the Great's most significant changes to the state were the improvements to the Russian military and also the expansion of the Russian industry. Throughout his reign, Peter the Great's ambitious westernizing reformation of the Russian military and industry transformed Russian into a strong and well respected European power at the expense of the countries laboring serfs. After the crushing defeat against the Swedish at the Battle of Narva, Peter the Great realized he had to reform the Russian military they wanted to stand a chance against the European powers. Although Peter's army was very large the soldiers were in sufficiently trained and inadequately equipped (Hosking). Peters officers and soldiers were not accustomed to fighting the European style battles involving open field. Peter knew that if he wanted match the European powers he needed to teach his officers western military tactics, modernize the weaponry for the soldiers, and raise funds to apply these changes. Peter also adopted European style uniforms for his army to express formality and contention to the Western powers. With this large, formal, advanced, and educated army, Russia could safely protect its newly acquired lands, contest European powers such as Sweden.

Security Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Security Systems - Essay Example A Firewall is effective at protecting one's computer. Firewall sets limits to the allowable access point of users and it restricts the users from entering those sites that are suspected to be harmful. It also blocks malicious sites from opening up; this is done to ensure that the threats are unable to enter into one's computer system. Another type of security system is the virus protection software. In installing this type of software it is important to constantly update its features, most importantly the current virus definition as it tends to change from time to time (Reardon, 2001). Actually, there are a lot of anti-virus products offered online but before one would opt to purchase it, factors like the source or the company offering it as well as the over-all product features must be taken into consideration. Upon using technological gadgets like computers, it is always vital to take the necessary precautions. Installing an antivirus software or turning on the firewall does not ta ke a lot of energy, it only requires a person to click the button of a mouse. By doing this one is guaranteed of protection.

Employee Motivation Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Employee Motivation - Assignment Example ly the monetary ones are resources that are highly desirable to the employees and in order to attain these resources employees try to meet the expectations of the managers. If an employee is work hard and meeting all his objectives and is increasing the productivity of the organization, then he/she should be provided with benefits in consistency with his work. If he/she is not provided with equitable benefits then he/she may perceive that his hard work is of low value in the eyes of the management and that is why the management is giving them lower benefits as compared to the benefits that are being offered to other employees. Managers need to make employees feel that whatever work they do is essential for the organization in order to motivate them to work hard on those tasks. One way of making employees feel that the work that they are doing is significant is by giving them higher benefits. This is because higher benefits will make the employee feel that he is being offered these be nefits because his work is valuable and the organization is paying him more in order to retain his services and do not want him to

Summarize the banking system Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Summarize the banking system - Research Paper Example Institutions that are concerned with this type of economic interest are the investment banks. Then there are those banks that deal with the monetary policies and the change in the value of a specific currency since trade cannot happen without the presence of currency. Such institutions are called the national central banks (Mullineux & Murinde, 2003).   A trustworthy banking system is important since it assures individuals that their finances are safe and that banks are trustworthy. If an individual is going to trust the bank with their money, then the system might as well be secure, trustworthy and reliable. The banking system has evolved with time. With the presence of technology, it has become more secure, safe, trustworthy, efficient and reliable (Mullineux & Murinde, 2003).   From the time there was the presence of goldsmiths to the current time where there is the modern federal banking system; there has been much change in the system. There was a time that the main piece of trade was metal; gold, silver and bronze (Apel, 2006).  Presently, the main item of trade is money. Banking in the United States is considered best since when it comes to the banking structure, it is consisted of a number of regulators. Compared to other countries like Japan, in the U.S, banking is regulated at two levels; the federal level and the state level (Apel, 2006).   In Japan, the regulation of the banking system is combined into a single financial agent. For the United States, the advantage is that the state maintains separate services ranging from security, insurance, commodity and all this is different from the banking services (Apel,

National Fire Department Census Quick Facts Assignment - 3

National Fire Department Census Quick Facts - Assignment Example Notwithstanding these achievements, the cost, quality, and accessibility of American fire safety care services have become a major policy and legislative issues. Substantial increases in the cost of fire safety care have considerable cost on household, public safety department and state budgets, as well as the employment-based fire-related insurance system. Public safety, fire department services’ quality varies widely, a source of payment, state or individual sponsor and preferences. At some point during any given year, most Americans lack fire-related insurance coverage. The costs of providing uncompensated damages; as a result, of fire, are a considerable burden for many public safety care providers, taxpayers, and other consumers. Â  In the state of Springfield, fire departments are staffed by around 1,190,000 personnel. This includes volunteer, career, and paid per call firefighters as well as non-firefighting and civilian staff personnel. There are a total of approximately 1,044,300 active volunteer, careers, and are paid per call firefighters. This is nearly 88% of the registered department's personnel. Â  For instance, in 2011 Fire departments responded to 30,100,000 calls for service. The two-thirds of the cases were for medical help, 7.6% were deceitful alarms, and only 4.6% (1,400,000) were for actual fires. Currently, the department receives 4000 a day on average. On average Springfield fire departments respond to one million fire calls that each year, representing the highest number of cases in the industrialized world. This result of death and injury of thousands of people annually and property damages reach the billions of dollars. It involves indirect costs, for instance, temporary lodging expenses for the displaced, psychological damages and medical expenses are equally alarming. The Budget is approximately $41.306 million annually.

Summarize the banking system Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Summarize the banking system - Research Paper Example Institutions that are concerned with this type of economic interest are the investment banks. Then there are those banks that deal with the monetary policies and the change in the value of a specific currency since trade cannot happen without the presence of currency. Such institutions are called the national central banks (Mullineux & Murinde, 2003).   A trustworthy banking system is important since it assures individuals that their finances are safe and that banks are trustworthy. If an individual is going to trust the bank with their money, then the system might as well be secure, trustworthy and reliable. The banking system has evolved with time. With the presence of technology, it has become more secure, safe, trustworthy, efficient and reliable (Mullineux & Murinde, 2003).   From the time there was the presence of goldsmiths to the current time where there is the modern federal banking system; there has been much change in the system. There was a time that the main piece of trade was metal; gold, silver and bronze (Apel, 2006).  Presently, the main item of trade is money. Banking in the United States is considered best since when it comes to the banking structure, it is consisted of a number of regulators. Compared to other countries like Japan, in the U.S, banking is regulated at two levels; the federal level and the state level (Apel, 2006).   In Japan, the regulation of the banking system is combined into a single financial agent. For the United States, the advantage is that the state maintains separate services ranging from security, insurance, commodity and all this is different from the banking services (Apel,

Pathophysiology of Why at High Risk of Infection Research Paper

Pathophysiology of Why at High Risk of Infection - Research Paper Example of concurrent or previous treatments like radiation and/or steroids are both variables that can raise the probability of contracting an infection and may exacerbate any that come to exist. Additionally, the patient has an increased risk of infection due to having diabetes, and even the anxiety he experiences about the procedure can negatively impact the body. All of the factors described above can contribute to the compromising of the immune system and the subsequent colonization of infectious organisms. Post-operative influences are also important in the assessment of Mr. Baker’s risk for contracting an infection. Though incompetence is far from a certainty, the inexperience of the patient’s assigned nurse may increase the risk of infection. Perhaps more obvious is the threat of infection arising from the use of several invasive instruments during the post-operative care period. IVs, PCA punts, nasogastric tubes, and nasal cannulas are all valuable tools but they can also provide both entry points for infections as well as locations for microorganisms to amass. Direct entry is provided in every IV and PCA situation because puncturing the skin is necessary in both cases. In contrast, nasogastric tubes and cannulas are ideally meant to be implemented without tissue penetration, but scratches and cuts are practically unavoidable, especially in an

Cross-Cultural Differences Company X Essay Example for Free

Cross-Cultural Differences Company X Essay A. Cross-Cultural Differences Company X is considering expanding its business to China. However, prior to moving into a new and foreign market, Company X must understand the various cross cultural differences that are relevant to properly conducting business in China. By being more sensitive to and understanding the cross-cultural differences, Company Xs transition into the new market should be less challenging and improve its chances of acceptance. Language, work ethic and material culture are three cultural differences that should, first, be understood prior to pursuing opportunities in China. Language is a barrier that will greatly influence the ability of Company X to conduct business in China. Included in this category is spoken, written and body language. If not adequately addressed, spoken language barriers will result in miscommunication, the inability to collaborate, and inability to deliver appropriate customer service. Specific to China is that there are 1000s of dialects and it is common for residents of China from various parts of the country to even have difficulty understanding their fellow countryman’s local dialects. However, the spoken language barrier can be overcome by adopting the use of an interpreter to to assist in verbal communication and establishing appropriate relationships (Ball et al, 2009). By leveraging local experts who are fluent in Mandarin or Cantonese, depending on where business is to be conducted, will likely result in a competitive advantage for Company X. its important to have a interpreter who also understands Company Xs industry. Furthermore, its important to avoid the use of idioms and jargon specific to the organization. When engaged in a conversation, it is important avoid using the word â€Å"no.† Instead, an acceptable response to a question might be, â€Å"we will take the idea into consideration and get back to you about the item.† In the U.S., its common to respond with and acceptable to respond with the word â€Å"no† when appropriate. However, it could impair business relations when not approached properly. Next, it is imperative to accurately translate written communications in a form that is understandable and appropriate for the specific foreign audience, in this case China, and to ensure meanings are not lost. This might include translating technical manuals, catalogs and advertising ideas into Mandarin or Cantonese. In translating documentation, it will be critical; to select words in the from the chosen language that have the same meaning as the English words (Ziganag Fan, 2004). Employing qualified translators who can accurately convert English text to the required language will allow Company X to overcome the written language challenges Its important to understand and be aware of body language while conducting business in China (Ball et al, 2009). . For example, when entering a room, the host will usually direct a guest to sit. Otherwise, it would be considered rude to sit prior to being directed by the host. In the the U.S. This may not be seen as an issue. However, it is one of the cultural differences to be aware of. Another example is with personal space. In the U.S., for example, its common to maintain an arms lengths distance from others. Approaching closer is considered inappropriate and can make some feel uncomfortable. In China, on the other hand, it is common for others to be in what Americans might consider their â€Å"personal space.â€Å" No offense is meant by the action. This is just another cultural challenge to be aware of as Company X pursues business in China. Work Ethic and business relationships are further cross cultural differences that need to be carefully approached. In the Chinese business culture, personal relationships directly influence work ethic and business relationships. According to one expert, â€Å"China is a relational-oriented country in which people place great importance on personal relationship. Chinese managers may initially focus more effort on building social and interpersonal relations before entering into business or contractual relationship† (Ziganag Fan, 2004). For example, employee loyalty can be described and improved by reciprocating favors. Developing business relationships are expected to take more time in the Chinese culture as opposed to how they are developed in the united States. In the U.S., businesses and clients typically meet in a formal setting and focus on the business requirements and solutions whereas, in China, first, second and even third meetings might be in informal settings where b usiness is not expected to even be discussed. The legal system is another issue to be considered when doing business in China because it is still viewed as being in a developing stage. Contracts, for example, are highly influenced by this difference. In the Chinese culture, contracts describe how relationships will be developed whereas in the United States, the contract is a binding agreement that spells out the specific terms, conditions and expectations from each party involved. As Company X pursues the possibility of expanding business to China, it must understand that the Chinese business culture does not place as much emphasis on the binding force of a written contract. B. Compare U.S. business practices to practices in your proposed country for each of the following: Product, Price, Promotion and Place The marketing mix should be taken into consideration as Company X considers expansion int the China market. It is important to recognize that strategies that are effective in the United States will not necessarily be effective in China. Therefore, the components of the marketing mix (products, price, promotion and place) strategies might require adjustments to become attractive to the Chinese market. Often times, the total product must be modified to accommodate the needs and appeal of a specific market. This does not necessarily mean that the manufacturing or production process is modified. The total product consists of the brand, accessories, services, warranty, instructions, image and packaging (Ball et al, 2009). For example, if Company X decides to sell certain circuit boards in China, it might be more beneficial to modify the package and instructions that are written in English for the U.S. Market and translate into Mandarin or Cantonese for the Chinese market. Another example is in the frozen food industry. If Company X is distributing frozen meats, like chicken and beef, to grocery retailers in the U.S. and wants to expand into the Chinese market, the company might encounter infrastructure challenges because many rural and undeveloped areas of China may not be equipped with freezers. Its more common to find fresh or live chickens in markets so Company X may want to consid er modifying its product strategy from distributing frozen food in China to fresh distribution as an alternative. Pricing also needs to be addressed because purchasing power in the foreign currency may differ from the U.S. dollar. Prices need to be adjusted to consider the cost of living in China. For example, if a widget in the U.S. is costs ten dollars, the price might be equivalent to forty dollars in local Chinese currency (Ball et al, 2009). Consumer wages are lower in much of China making purchasing a more expensive item out of reach for many potential consumers. Additional factors include price increases due to taxes and tariffs. Promotion includes methods for effectively communicating a message, such as through advertising, to achieve a desired perception. Forms of advertising include radio, television, billboards, internet and brochures. The messaging delivered in the U.S. Market will likely differ form how the product is presented in China. In the U.S., advertisements for a particular product may focus on cost savings and product quality benefits, whereas in China, advertisements typically project how the product will improve ones quality of life. In the U.S., there are are variety of Another important consideration is place or distribution. In other words, how will Company X get the product to customers in China? Place takes into consideration factors like distribution partners, geography, trade routes and climate (Ball et al, 2009). Distribution in the U.S. is highly developed an easy to access. By utilizing domestic shipping companies, product can be in the hands of a customer overnight or within hours, for that matter. If Company X leverages retail distributors like supermarkets, consumers can get their products even quicker. The United States has a highly developed infrastructure system of roads bridges and seaports that enable product to easily move to every city in the country. On the other hand, there will be challenges to doing business in China. These includes regions of markets that are landlocked, where there is no seaport access with less developed roads resulting in slower movement of product. When conducting business in China, it is common practice to develop partnership with foreign distributors who are familiar with the regional and local cultures, industry and business climate. Most importantly, prior to launching business in China, it will require a series of meetings to get to know partners, their understanding of the markets and their success. C. Ethical Issues Its important to understand that certain common practices in one country may be prohibited and illegal in another country. Two distinct ethical issues that will influence proceeding with conducting business in China is the political environment and practice of gift giving. First, in the United States it is a common practice for large industries or businesses to engage in politics and attempt to influence laws through lobbying. Companies might even go as far as publicly criticizing the U.S. Governments position on a particular issue. This is legal and often commonplace in the United States. On the other hand, in China, it is unlawful for businesses to speak out against or criticize government policy so the business must be cautious to comply with policy and not voice dissent. Secondly, gift giving is no longer encouraged in the U.S., and furthermore, in some cases may be construed as bribery which is illegal. Some businesses even limit the value of gift that employee s can accept from vendors. Even in within the federal government, employees are prohibited from accepting meal offers from suppliers that exceeds twenty five dollars. An equity trader who offers an executive at a firm, a gift in the form of a large sum of money in return for specific â€Å"inside† information, would be considered bribery and is completely illegal in the United States. In China, however, it is common practice and expected to give gifts to potential business clients. The act is a welcomed practice that takes place at all levels of business. Obviously, there are limits that might cross into unlawful practices, specifically when offering high valued gifts to government officials.