Prison Labour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Prison Labour - Essay Example There has been a debate for centuries over the issue of imprisonment labour effects upon both prison and non-prison employment. Such effects are based on only subjective confirmation. Supporters of prison labour publicize its communal advantages through minimized prison's expenses, better performance among the inmates, probable decline in inmate violence, and corrective remedy by means of social skills development. Whereas antagonists raise the objection that prison labour creates joblessness and decline in sales in the outer world.1 Significance of Prison Labor As stated by Buck2 labour is said to be a fundamental element within prison's affairs. It is considered as a source of not only the reprimand but a corrective measure also, it is being perceived as a straitlaced compulsion and a rehabilitation attempt as well. According to Focault3, prison labour aims to create a legitimate power relation, a notion of submission on the part of inmates and a corrective and constructive mechanism. Focault marks down the value of profit as a work stimulus, though, during the period of escalating industrialized development, the amounts of profits are great. As incarceration work is based on the dynamic of compliance to authority and dominance, thus it always has a threat of revolt and aggression, that is, to respond ethically and morally in debauched circumstances full of oppression and humiliation. Forced labour seems to be morally wrong although being validated for centuries by the church as a corrective mode. Efficiency and labour may not be parallel at times. Labour is a calculated product for organizing pursuit of mankind apparently to have profit, but may be different for others who claim to have all sources of production like human resource, minerals, land etc. They inscribe it through an ethical angle for the development of improved lifestyle such as stability, compliance and passivity. Labour, if viewed as a planned and quantifiable object, seems to be a manipulation of human resource and an inspiration for producing worth. Mental labour is also probable to be apprehended by those making payments to scientists and educators, o r giving salaries to technical employees.4 Rights of Prisoners for Prison labour Prisons are not meant to be particularly hospitable places, punishment as a goal of imprisonment implies a certain level of discomfort. Since the establishment of punishment by incarceration, prison conditions have had notably harsh effects upon the human body and mind.5 As stated by Johnston6 although conditions have varied over time and between institutions, reformers have constantly voiced concerns over the treatment of prisoners. Approximately four decades ago, federal courts began responding to complaints of inhumane treatment by applying the Constitutional Eighth Amendment prohibition against brutal and extraordinary punishment to demarcate a line between conditions of confinement that are uncomfortable and those which are unconstitutional.7 Along with the expansions of civil rights for inmates, courts mandated the costly reorganization of prisons. The prisons, once characterized by local autonomy and self-rule, were transformed into modern bureaucratic institutions designed to protect prisoners' newly acquired rights.8 International

Molds and Yeasts in Microbiology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Molds and Yeasts in Microbiology - Essay Example They also differ in colour in that the molds are colourful while yeast is just white and thread. Molds are in most cases live in moist, shadowy or steam-filled parts while yeast can be found in the stomachs of mammals, on fruits, on skin, etc.( Burton & Engelkirk, 2000; 25) In spite of the fungi’s role in causing diseases, they still are beneficial and useful organisms to the human beings and are utilized both commercially and industrially. For example, the use of yeasts in the fermentation process in brewing, bread making and wine making. Yeasts and other fungi also play a significant part in bio-control agent, food processing, enzyme biotechnology, drug manufacture, as well as research and development. People risk fungal infections when the stability of microorganisms in the vagina, mouth, intestines and other places in the body is interfered with, and results in an overgrowth of fungus. Pathogenic fungi cause human infectious diseases which are classified according to their degree of tissue involvement and means of entry to the host. (Cowan & Talaro, 2009; 403). Superficial mycoses are restricted to the outmost cover of the skin, the hair, and nails. Some common examples are ringworm, athletes foot, jock itch, and yeast infections. Cutaneous mycoses go deep into the epidermis, and also comprise invasive hair and nail infections. Subcutaneous mycoses infections are localised to the dermis, subcutaneous tissue or adjacent structures such as; muscle and fascia. However, systemic mycoses mainly involve deep infections of the internal organs because primary pathogens that are inherently virulent originate primarily in the lungs, and may spread through to many organ systems (Jucker, 2003; 18). Pathogenic fungi produce infections that are classified into two: systemic and superficial. Systemic infections involve internal organs. Fungi can transmit a disease to deeper tissue causing septicemia, which

Morality and Religion Essay Example for Free

Morality and Religion Essay There is a close relationship between morality and ethics but they do not mean the same thing. On the other hand, anti-morality and anti-nature are aspects, which negate vital instincts. Friedrich Nietzsche is a renowned philosopher who criticized social laws, religion, and honorable in a radical manner. Nietzsche argues that, â€Å"anti-nature refers to the idea of allowing human beings to coerce others into adopting their beliefs and morals† (Friedrich 404). Friedrich Nietzsche had a personal belief that morality is anti-nature. In fact, Nietzsche states that, â€Å"Every naturalism in morality-that is every health morality-is dominated by an instinct of life† (349). Indeed, Nietzsche helps us to define the idea of anti-nature by asserting that a human being is seemingly refuting the reality by denying their personal passion. In fact, according to Nietzsche and his moral philosophy, the healthiest moralities accommodate natural aspects while the unhealthy moralities negate nature. Nature derives human desires, which consequently define individual personality and how human beings behave. Nietzsche observes that human beings should have the free will to choose what they want without coercion from any external forces. He further quotes that, â€Å"Anti-natural molarity-that is almost every morality which has so far been taught, revered, and preached-turns conversely against the instincts of life: it is condemnation of these instincts† (349). He also disputes the common notion that religions like Christianity drive human life and consequently asserts that religion and dominance of morality inhibits human nature. In this context, Nietzsche argues that ardent followers of a certain religion ignore the nature of humanity since religion forces individuals to behave in a manner that will please the supreme ruler of the reference religion. Friedrich Nietzsche holds that religion especially Christianity opposes human nature because it gives a leeway to individuals to adopt religious doctrines about human life hence limiting individuals from celebrating nature. Indeed, Nietzsche states that the most general foundation of every religion and morality is, â€Å"Do this and that, refrain from this and that,-then you will be happy† (352)! He uses this explanation to support the concept of anti-nature in morality. Notably, Nietzsche refers to morality as anti-nature by asserting that human desires control what individuals do, do not do, and confirms that morality draws away the course of nature. Nevertheless, various philosophers identify with the fact that nature generates human desires that consequently define human personality and morality. However, I strongly oppose Nietzsche’s notion that human nature is prone to alternation by both morality and religion. Most specifically, I note that Nietzsche depicts religious people like Christians as hypocrites who can do anything to please God at the expense of altering their human nature. Ideally, Christians are rational beings who do not have such morality. Indeed, very few Christians would identify with Nietzsche’s argument since his ideas discourage Christians from following their religion. Notably, Nietzsche’s argument that religion alters human nature by allowing Christians to adopt different aspects of life that prevent them from celebrating life is misguided. This is because Christians have morals that allow them to enjoy their lives just like any other person. In fact, his argument is not universal since it only addresses Christians thus leaving a significant population out. Assuredly, Nietzsche discourages people from adopting religion’s doctrines that alter human passions but encourages people to follow their human desires (Jacobus 67). I also oppose Nietzsche’s argument since it does not support religion and thus discourages many Christians from adopting his views. In fact, I will compare Nietzsche’s moral philosophy with Iris Murdoch’s philosophy with a view of disregarding the assertions of Nietzsche’s reference to morality as anti-nature. Notably, Iris Murdoch addresses the concept of morality where she incorporates religion in addressing morality. In fact, her argument does not discourage the adoption of religious doctrines in morality thus attracting the attention of Christians and other religious people. Unlike, Nietzsche who blames religion for altering human nature and passions, Murdoch believes that religion affects morality in a positive manner. Nietzsche uses the naturalistic perspective to support his argument where the naturalistic perspective on religion contradicts with the idea of human beings by taking the responsibility of controlling their given passions and nature. More so, Nietzsche’s criticism on the effects of religion on human morality does not correlate with any religious, philosophical, social, or historical example and hence its irrationality. As such, Nietzsche’s argument lacks logic to me. On the other hand, Nietzsche does not incorporate the idea of human responsibility, which every human being should adopt. In fact, the act of satisfying individual responsibility is a moral behavior that resides outside the premises of religion. Actually, some philosophers like Murdoch claims that religion improves right morals by instilling a conviction and belief of doing the right things while out of control. Indeed, religion plays a noble role of encouraging humans to abide by the code of ethics set by the government or any relevant institution. In fact, Murdoch asserts that religion plays a huge role in generating someone’s morals by instilling the urge to remain focused on individual objectives. She further confirms that human nature accommodates the aspect of fulfilling one’s responsibility. With this argument, we can derive that religion does not alter human nature and that responsibilities propel human beings to decide and behave in a certain manner. Again, this assertion is stronger than that of Nietzsche, which claims that religion inhibits human nature. Michael Gazzaniga seemingly opposes Nietzsche ideologies in some way. According to Gazzaniga, people who believe in religion would only be classified under Nietzsche ideology of anti-nature if they allowed religion to take over their life (Jacobus 415-420). It is agreeable that some religion fanatics have taken religion to control everything in their life. Therefore, such people would simply be anti-nature as argued by Nietzsche. However, the majorities of religious people have not gone to the extremities of religion and therefore, according to Gazzaniga, they are living normal lives naturally. Nietzsche limits discussions and contributions of other philosophers and commands the audience to believe in his beliefs. Indeed, Nietzsche is an anti-realist about morality. This is because he does not abhor his positive views on morality and equally refutes all criticism against his views. In fact, he disregards any opinion that contradicts his own and thus his rhetoric character on morality. Indeed, he denies the objective of morality by believing that human beings have the responsibility of determining their morality, a fact Gazzaniga negates when he says that those who have control of religion have control of nature and morality as well (Jacobus 415-420). At the same time, Nietzsche’s argument lacks the support of any political philosophy since his views lack a systematic approach about the society. On the other hand, Murdoch does not speak with finality, encourages the participation of other philosophers, and accords the audiences’ free will to accept his argument. Such a leeway only allows individuals to buy Murdoch’s argument with a view of improving it and rejecting Nietzsche’s argument since it is discouraging to Christians and is seemingly irrational. Moreover, Nietzsche’s argument only presents what is wrong but does not present what is right while Murdoch helps us to derive the difference between right and wrong morals. Notably, Nietzsche argues that human beings cannot redeem themselves after neglecting their nature desires. This assertion is wrong since human beings always have a desire to fix their wrongs with a view of becoming better people in the society. Moreover, contrary to Nietzsche’s argument, it is factual that individuals can only achieve their goals by following their convictions and beliefs and denying their human desires, which mostly lead to immorality. Notably, religion derives this conviction, which encourages followers to adopt good morals and avoid sin as it leads to punishment. This negates Nietzsche’s claim that religion alters human nature and that human desires define morality. As such, I dispute Nietzsche’s views, which discourage religion from instilling the right morals and consequently identify with the idea that humans have the capacity to define their morals naturally. I agree that our morals depend on our conviction and not our desires as Nietzsche claims. Additionally, I disagree with Nietzsche’s idea that nature plays no role in defining our morals since nature plays a significant role in determining our behaviors. As such, I reject Friedrich Nietzsche’s assumption that morality is anti-nature. Works Cited Friedrich, Nietzsche. The Selected Writings of Friedrich Nietzsche. Lanham: Start Publishing LLC, 2013. Internet resource. Jacobus, Lee. A World of Ideas: Essential Readings for College Writers. New York: Bedford/St. Martins, 2009. Print. Nietzsche, Friedrich. â€Å"Morality as Anti-Nature. † 347-356. Murdoch, Iris, â€Å"Morality and religion. † Jacobus 363-371 Gazzaniga, Michael. â€Å"Toward a Universal Ethics. † Jacobus 419-431.

The Law Code of King Alfred the Great

The Law Code of King Alfred the Great The Law Code of King Alfred the Great The Law Code of King Alfred the Great is the largest and best preserved piece of legal documentation made prior to the Norman conquest of 1066 [1], and the first surviving Anglo-Saxon law code since Ines, nearly two centuries earlier [2], making it an essential document in the study of late Anglo-Saxon law, culture and society. The documents usefulness as a historical source stems not only from its unique existence as a source of law for the Alfredian period, but also from the fact that it was written by Alfred himself; as noted by Wormald, Alfred was the only European king of the Early Middle Ages known to have written books [3], and therefore his Law Codes give historians a unique insight into the political thought of the later Anglo-Saxon kings and the legal system of ninth century England. Alfreds Law Code also reveals much about the character and personality of its author. For example, the fact that Alfred was unique among Early Medieval rulers in his extensive authorship of books and legal documents [4] shows the Kings commitment to learned activity and his understanding of the importance of written record in the efficient and successful running of his kingdom. It is also important to note that Alfreds Law Code was written at a time when no other English king had issued laws for nearly a hundred years [5]. The reasons for this sudden return to the issuing of written law are not expressly stated by Alfred, either in the Preface or Codes themselves, however it can be argued that by issuing his Law Code at such a time, Alfred was showing a genuine concern for the wellbeing of his people, in ensuring fairness and equality for all before the law. Study of Alfreds Law Code also reveals the author to be a pragmatist in his dealing with the law. For example, while it is clear Alfred would rather prevent the custom of blood feuds, he realises that the Anglo-Saxon world is one of violence, and the feud is a necessary, albeit distasteful, part of this. Therefore Alfred does not seek to make blood feuds illegal but instead to regulate them so as to minimise violence and bloodshed.[6] This practical approach to law-making is also shown in Alfreds preface to his Laws, where he states that a man has no need of law books if he judges fairly and equally [7]. However the fact that Alfred is writing this in his Law Code shows that although in an ideal world such a code would not be needed, he accepts that men are only human and many will require guidance as to what is right and wrong. The Law Code of King Alfred the Great is the largest and best preserved piece of legal documentation made prior to the Norman conquest of 1066 [1], and the first surviving Anglo-Saxon law code since Ines, nearly two centuries earlier [2], making it an essential document in the study of late Anglo-Saxon law, culture and society.justice. [9] This theory is also supported by Alfreds own introduction to his translation of Pope Gregorys Pastoral Care, in which he speaks of his respect for the Anglo-Saxon kings of the Golden Age of the 7th Century who not only maintained their peace, morality and authority at home but also extended their territory outside [10]. This suggests that Alfreds intentions in writing his Law Code were born out of a desire to return to a time when, in his eyes, things were better. However Alfreds use of the phrase extended their territory outside [11], should also be noted, as it implies other intentions than those immediately obvious from the accounts of Asser and others, including Alfred himself. Therefore, while Alfred may have been motivated to write his Laws for the good of his people, it is important to remember that the King had other reasons for writing his Code and the laws serve other purposes other than the direct administration of justice. One such unofficial reason for Alfreds writing of his Law Code, it can be argued, was to assert his royal power and ensure the loyalty of his subjects in a legal document that could not be disputed [12], thereby safeguarding his own position and consolidating his hold over the kingdom. This intentional inclusion of laws designed to ensure loyalty from Alfreds subjects can be seen in the wording of the Law Codes themselves, where treason is portrayed as the most unholy and unforgivable of sins only for treachery to a lord they dared not declare any mercyhe [Christ] charged everyone to love his lord as himself [13]. The reference to Christ in this quote shows the severity of the crimes of treason and treachery, as even the mercy of Christ is not afforded to those who commit these sins. The theory that Alfreds Laws were intended to secure his own position, is given weight by the underlying threat of rebellion that was present for much of Alfreds reign, especially in the case of Aethelwo ld, rival to the throne and the son of Alfreds predecessor, who led a rebellion in 899[14], which could have been a direct influence upon the emphasis placed on loyalty to the king and lords found in Alfreds Code. The underlying political agenda of Alfreds Laws is also an important aspect of the text. It is argued by Wormald that Alfreds respectful mentions of the laws of Offa and Aethelbert (previous kings of Mercia and Kent respectively) in his preface to his own laws, and his statement that he is influenced by them in his own law making, is an attempt to remind Mercians and Kentishmen of his concern for their traditions'[15]. This pandering to the traditions of the other English kingdoms suggests that Alfred was subtly attempting to enhance his own power over the rest of England outside of Wessex, ultimately leading to him being accepted as Anglo Rex, the title eventually bestowed upon his successors. However as Pratt reminds us, the fact that Alfreds Law Code contains a political agenda need not make it irrelevant as a source of honest legal intentions [16]. Pratts theory is supported by the inclusion in Alfreds Law Code the laws of one of his predecessors, Ine, whose laws deal primarily w ith theft, trading and agricultural matters. [17] In contrast to this Alfreds laws deal mostly with the breaking of oaths, injuries and sexual offences  [18], and so Alfred can be seen to be filling in the blanks in Ines original laws, therefore honestly trying to better the current legal system. Religious imagery and language features very heavily in Alfreds Law Codes and there are several arguments as to why this is. Wallace-Hadrill argues that the main reason for the sustained religious imagery in the Law Codes is due to the medieval perception that kingship was a divine right and Alfreds use of religious imagery is another attempt to assert his authority and show his right to the throne, thus making any sin committed against him a sin against God. [19] Similarly it is argued that the use of religious imagery by Alfred is due to the lack of an effective way of enforcing the law in Alfreds kingdom and an authority greater than the king or any earthly lord was needed to ensure social order [20]. However it can also be argued that the sustained religious imagery in the Law Codes is nothing more than the product of a deeply Christian society, where the natural law of God forms the basis for all perceptions of right and wrong, therefore it is only natural that religion features extensively in a book of law. In conclusion Alfreds law code is a synthesis of the laws of several other Anglo-Saxon kings [21], along with his own work, created with the intention of codifying and clarifying existing laws, exerting royal authority and promoting the King as leader not only of Wessex but of the English people. Bibliography R. Abels, Alfred the Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo Saxon England (Essex, 1998) J. R. C. Hall, A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (London, 4th ed. 1960) S. Keynes and M. Lapidge, trans. Alfred the Great: Assers Life of Alfred and Other Contemporary Sources (London, 1983) D. Pratt, The Political Thought of King Alfred the Great, (Cambridge, 2007) S. Reynolds, Medieval Law, in P. Linehan and J. Nelson (eds), The Medieval World (Oxon, 2001) A. P. Smyth, King Alfred the Great (Oxford, 1995) E. G. Stanley, On the Laws of King Alfred: The End of the Preface and the Beginning of the Laws, in J. Roberts, J. Nelson, M. Godden (eds), Alfred the Wise (Cambridge, 1997) M. H. Turk (ed.), The Legal Code of Alfred the Great (Boston, 1883) J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, Early Germanic Kingship in England and on the Continent (London, 1971) D. Whitelock, English Historical Documents Vol. 1 (London, 1955) P. Wormald, The Ninth Century, in J. Campbell (ed.), The Anglo Saxons (London, 1991) P. Wormald, The Making of English Law: King Alfred to the Twelfth Century, Vol. 1: Legislation and its Limits. (Oxford, 1999) [1] P. Wormald, The Making of English Law: King Alfred to the Twelfth Century, Vol. 1: Legislation and its Limits. (Oxford, 1999), p. 265 [2] P. Wormald, The Ninth Century, in J. Campbell (ed.), The Anglo Saxons (London, 1991), p.134 [3] Ibid., p. 135 [4] Ibid. [5] J.M. Wallace-Hadrill, Early Germanic Kingship in England and on the Continent (London, 1971), p. 148 [6] R. Abels, Alfred the Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo Saxon England (Essex, 1998), p.276 [7] D. Whitelock, English Historical Documents Vol. 1 (London, 1955), p.373 [8] S. Keynes and M. Lapidge, trans, Alfred the Great: Assers Life of King Alfred and Other Contemporary Sources (London, 1983), p.45 [9] Whitelock, English Historical Documents, p.331 [10] Keynes and Lapidge, Assers Life of King Alfred p. 25 [11] Ibid. [12] Ibid. p.39 [13] Whitelock, English Historical Documents, p. 373 [14] Wormald, The Ninth Century p. 155 [15] Ibid. p.157 [16] D. Pratt, The Political Thought of King Alfred the Great, (Cambridge, 2007), p. 217 [17] Ibid. p. 220 [18] Ibid [19] Wallace-Hadrill, Early Germanic Kingship p.144 [20] Abels, War, Kingship and Culture p. 277 [21] A. P. Smyth, King Alfred the Great (Oxford, 1995), p. 238

The Gifted and Talented Essay -- Essays Papers

The Gifted and Talented The term â€Å"gifted† can mean many things. Up until recently it was the word used to describe people with profoundly high intelligence. Now, adding the words â€Å"creative† and â€Å"talented†, the category of giftedness has been extended to include not only exceptionally intelligent people, but also people with extraordinary ability in other areas, not just with IQ tests (Drew, Egan, & Hardman, 2002). The identification and definition of giftedness have been controversial for many, many decades. Originally, IQ test scores were the only way of determining giftedness. An IQ test would be given and some number score, such as 12-, would be the point of cut-off (Cook, Elliott, Kratochwill, & Travers, 2000). More recently, intellectual giftedness is usually identified and defined by the specific school systems’ ideas and perspectives. There is no generally accepted definition of giftedness, but the Javits Gifted and Talented Education Act defines it as: â€Å"Children and youth with outstanding talent perform or show the potential for performing at remarkably high levels of accomplishment when compared with others of their age, experience, or environment. These children and youth exhibit high performance capability in intellectual, creative, and/or artistic areas, possess an unusual leadership capacity, or excel in specific academic fields. They require services or activities not ordinarily provided by the schools. Outstanding talents are present in children and youth from all cultural groups, across all economic strata, and in all areas of human endeavor† (Drew et al., 2002). It is obvious there is practically no limit on who can be gifted. The problems lie in the wide range of definitions and the acce... ...fted education. Retrieved March 4, 2004, from http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content4/ legal.rights.gifted.ed.html Magnet/center and special programs. (n.d). Retrieved March 4, 2004, from http:// www.mcps.k12.md.us/departments/eii/eiispecialprogramspage.html#The%20Program Parke, B. (n.d.). Challenging gifted students in the regular classroom. Retrieved March 1, 2004, from http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content/Challenging_gifted _kids.html Shaunessy, E. (2003). State policies regarding gifted education. Gifted Child Today Magazine, 26. Retrieved March 7, 2004, from http://search.epnet.com/direct.asp?an=10445176&db=f5h Winebrenner, S. (2003). Teaching strategies for twice-exceptional students [Electronic version]. Intervention in School and Clinic, 38. Retrieved March 4, 2004, from http://search.epnet.com/direct.asp?an=EJ659359&db=eric

Jungle Book :: essays research papers

Part 1: Identifying 1.) Protagonists- In a story or movie the Protagonist(s) is/are the main character(s). In the story A separate Peace the protagonist is Phineas(Finny). 2.) Antagonists- In a story or movie the Antagonist(s) is/are the character or force in conflict with a main character, or Protagonist(s). In the story A Separate Peace the Antagonist is Gene. 3.) Setting- In a story or movie the Setting is the time & place of the action. In the story A Separate Peace the setting is at the Devon School. 4.) Mood- In a story or movie the Mood is the feeling created n the passage. In the story A Separate Peace the mood is sad because jealousy ruined Gene & Finny’s friendship. 5.) Conflicts- In a story or movie the Conflict is a struggle between opposing forces. There are two types of Conflicts: Internal & External. An Internal Conflict involves a character in conflict with himself or herself. In the story A Separate Peace the Internal Conflict is Gene vs. himself. In an external conflict, the main character struggles against an outside force. In the story A Separate Peace the External Conflict Gene vs. Finny. 6.) Suspense- In a story or movie the Suspense is the feeling of curiosity or uncertainty about the outcome of events. In the story A Separate Peace the Suspense is when Gene shakes the tree limb & Finny falls & shatters the bone in his leg. Part 2: Elements of plot   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1.) Exposition- In a story or movie the exposition is the background information, which sets the scene for the conflict. In the story A Separate Peace the exposition is the following: At the beginning of the story Gene has been out of school for fifteen years & has decided to come back & visit. While visiting he saw the tree that Finny & he had jumped from into the Devon so many years a go, which brought back a lot of memories. He then remembers the Super Suicide Society of the Summer Session. That was the club that Finny came up with.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To be in the club you had to jump off a high tree limb & into the Devon. Since Finny was a daredevil, he decided to go first. Gene was an intellectual & was afraid to jump, but he jumped anyway. They were then late for supper, which had been noted by Mr. Prud’homme.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The next morning Mr.

Science Fiction: A Genre based on Imagined Future Scientific

Science fiction is a genre that is based on â€Å"imagined future scientific or technological advances and major social or environmental changes† that can challenge and disrupt traditional perspectives of morality and behaviour. Each science fiction text explores but one of the numerous possibilities of the speculative and extrapolative ideas, with the author’s own views being placed throughout the text both intentionally and unintentionally. The genre concerns itself with the understanding of both past and present societies, with the futuristic visions being the outcome. These futuristic ideals are projections of our societies throughout time and space, given that science fiction also deals with varied contexts along the space time continuum, depending on which sub-genre the text belongs to within science fiction. The genre disperses into various types of science fiction including hard-core science fiction, social science fiction, and heroic science fiction, just to name a few. The sub-genre discussed throughout this critical reading is cyberpunk, â€Å"a genre of science fiction set in a lawless subculture of an oppressive society dominated by computer technology. This sub-genre gives us a wide viewpoint as to the challenging of traditional perspectives, particularly in regards to morality and behavior. Numerous science fiction texts delve into the understandings of morality and behaviour, with the ideas within challenging traditional perspectives of the aforementioned aspects. Neuromancer, by William Gibson, is just one of these texts that explore s technology – or in this case, the controlling, and parenting attributes of technology – through the embodiment and disembodiment of the main characters, Case and Molly. Stepping Razor in Orbit: Postmodern Identity and Political Alternatives in William Gibson’s Neuromancer by Benjamin Fair, as well as The Narrative Construction of Cyberspace: Reading Neuromancer, Reading Cyberspace Debates by Daniel Punday, are two articles that have supported the ideas of technology parenting the human race, the glorification of disembodiment, as well as the desire to become something more. The articles explore the experimentation with these ideas to extend on a person’s understanding of how science fiction challenges and disrupts traditional perspectives. Technology has driven the human race to the point that it has become a necessary part of our existence, influencing our morals and behaviour throughout every day life. Neuromancer demonstrates this, with the human body being a dystopia for Case. â€Å"A sense of disembodiment is the ideal† for the man driven to achieve his â€Å"homecoming that brings him back into contact with a network of human information,† the Matrix. Throughout Neuromancer we are shown the ways in which Case bases his identity on â€Å"an alienating system that the Matrix represents and enacts,† with his â€Å"distant fingers caressing the desk, tears of release streaking his face† when finally he is able to reintegrate with the systematic database he has been denied so long. The idea that we have become dependant on technology resonates through Gibson’s novel, with Case’s addiction to reconnecting with the Matrix driving the anti-hero to serve others while keeping his own motives in mind. Case has an urge, a need, to leave the body and connect solely with the Matrix, with this desire being positioned deep in self-loathing. This self-loathing passion for disembodiment fuels the idea of technology, and drives the anti-hero to demonstrate the ways in which technology has become a leading power within our lives, influencing our morals and behaviour, whilst challenging our traditional perspectives. Juxtaposing this fulfilling desire of disembodiment, however, we have a â€Å"reference to embodiment that affirms [physical identity] as the source of [Case’s] power. Despite the original idea of the human body being a hindrance to the technologically advanced society, we eventually see â€Å"the prison of [our] own flesh† inverting its role and becoming a source of empowerment. This gives us an overwhelming sense of self-actualisation; achieving realisations in ourselves through these experiences of embodiment and disembodiment, and freeing ourselves from the me taphorical prison of our own body. Gibson challenges the traditional perspectives of morality and behaviour through not only the affirmation of embodiment, but also the near-glorification of disembodiment. By experimenting with these bodily states, science fiction allows us to understand the challenging and disruption of morality and behaviour’s traditional perspectives. The idea that technology has become a parent figure to the human race is reiterated when Case â€Å"reflects on his involvement with larger political and social powers. † These understandings put the individual in such a position that they become a â€Å"kind of parasite within the parent organism,† which then takes the role of disassociating the individual who does not agree with, or support the goals, values and ideals of the larger system to which they belong. Gibson’s Neuromancer presents positive ways in which individuals made into the minority â€Å"retain freedom by virtue of their position on the margins,† as seen through Case’s refusal to follow structured daily life styles, and instead living his life in order to correct his bodily functions (or rather, non-bodily functions) and reintegrate with the Matrix. The human body eventually becomes a sanctuary, a safe haven from the technological advancements occurring in the outside world, â€Å"a place of security and belonging – self-acceptance – in contrast to the insecurity and alienation of cyberspace. The body becomes one’s own space, as the â€Å"issue in question is the urges behind the ideals promoted by those who find the body inadequate. † Molly exemplifies this idea as she exposes herself to numerous technological ‘enhancements,’ just one being the procedure which allows her hands to hold â€Å"ten double-edged, fo ur-centimetre scalpel blades. † These bodily adaptations echo the need to further our development both behaviourally and morally as humans, as we attempt to extend out abilities from that of humans to that of something more powerful. This desire to become something more can be understood through â€Å"the novel continually returning to the uneven spaces where the parts of individuals are assembled into some whole. † The idea of one part trying to do many jobs is clearly not going to be as efficient as many parts focusing on one role, and fulfilling that purpose extremely well. By adding onto our existing beings, we allow ourselves to grow and have more components added to our original form. However, the more additions we make, the more chances of the final form falling apart, as demonstrated in Gibson’s novel when â€Å"[Case] watched [Linda’s] personality fragment, calving like an iceberg, splinters drifting away. † Similar to a machine, if you add too many components, it is easier for one to malfunction, bringing the remaining crashing down. Despite this knowledge being instilled in humanity, we still experience needs to be something more powerful that what we already are. This in itself is humanity’s greatest downfall: the knowledge that while becoming more powerful, we are becoming more likely to fail. This drive for power challenges the traditional views on morality, with the desire overcoming our righteousness in some cases, leading us to be an anti-hero in our own lives. Reinforcing the idea that we are made of distinct, individual parts, Gibson has Peter Riviera recreate a holographic representation of Molly, â€Å"visualizing some part of her, only a small part, if [Riviera] could see hat perfectly, in the most perfect detail†¦Ã¢â‚¬  then he could understand that the â€Å"process of assemblage depends on a fundamental tension between the physical and the imaginative. † These contradictory ideas represent the ideas behind an object, with each perfected product, be it human, object, material or notion, there is an imaginative idea that led to the production or design. Obviously this does not need to refer only to a product, h owever. A person’s identity is made up of an imaginative idea combined with a physical ‘shell,’ and one without the other leaves an uninterpretable chaos of thoughts or actions. This imaginative idea is what influences our very life, guiding our moral compass as we endeavour to live with experimentation in our morals and behaviour. Science fiction is a genre that challenges ideas of present societies, and projects them into the future, creating texts that reinforce themes that disrupt traditional perspectives of morality and behaviour. Through the exploration of technology parenting the human race, the glorification of disembodiment, as well as the desire to become something more, the articles (Stepping Razor in Orbit: Postmodern Identity and Political Alternatives in William Gibson’s Neuromancer by Benjamin Fair, and The Narrative Construction of Cyberspace: Reading Neuromancer, Reading Cyberspace Debates by Daniel Punday) have increased the understanding of how science fiction experiments with morality and behaviour to challenge traditional perspectives. These ideas have been collected from William Gibson’s, Neuromancer, and been studied and explained throughout the aforementioned articles. The essentiality of technology is enforced, while the juxtaposition of disembodiment is discussed in detail throughout the articles, as they also bring up the issue of technology parenting the human race, complimenting the desire to become something more than what we are. The idea that we are made up, created and maintained of distinct individual parts is again explored throughout the entire novel, with references being placed within the text. These ideas challenge and disrupt traditional perspectives, while increasing one’s understanding of the text, Neuromancer, by William Gibson. ——————————————– [ 1 ]. New Oxford American Dictionary, Third Edition [ 2 ]. ibid. [ 3 ]. William Gibson (1995): Neuromancer, Paperback edition [ 4 ]. Benjamin Fair (2005): Stepping Razor in Orbit: Postmodern Identity and Political Alternatives in William Gibson's Neuromancer, Critique: Studies in Contemporary Fiction, pp. 92-103 [ 5 ]. Daniel Punday (2000): The Narrative Construction of Cyberspace: Reading Neuromancer, Reading Cyberspace Debates, College English, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 194-213 [ 6 ]. Benjamin Fair (2005): Stepping Razor in Orbit: Postmodern Identity and Political Alternatives in William Gibson's Neuromancer, Critique: Studies in Contemporary Fiction, pp. 98 [ 7 ]. Daniel Punday (2000): The Narrative Construction of Cybers pace: Reading Neuromancer, Reading Cyberspace Debates, College English, Vol. 63, No. 2, pp. 200 [ 8 ]. Benjamin Fair (2005): Stepping Razor in Orbit: Postmodern Identity and Political Alternatives in William Gibson's Neuromancer, Critique: Studies in Contemporary Fiction, pp. 8 [ 9 ]. William Gibson (1995): Neuromancer, Paperback edition, pp. 69 [ 10 ]. Benjamin Fair (2005): Stepping Razor in Orbit: Postmodern Identity and Political Alternatives in William Gibson's Neuromancer, Critique: Studies in Contemporary Fiction, pp. 98 [ 11 ]. William Gibson (1995): Neuromancer, Paperback edition, pp. 12 [ 12 ]. Daniel Punday (2000): The Narrative Construction of Cyberspace: Reading Neuromancer, Reading Cyberspace Debates, College English, Vol. 63, No. 2, pp. 201 [ 13 ]. ibid [ 14 ]. ibid [ 15 ]. Benjamin Fair (2005): Stepping Razor in Orbit: Postmodern Identity and Political Alternatives in William Gibson's Neuromancer, Critique: Studies in Contemporary Fiction, pp. 99 [ 16 ]. ibid [ 17 ]. William Gibson (1995): Neuromancer, Paperback edition, pp. 37 [ 18 ]. Daniel Punday (2000): The Narrative Construction of Cyberspace: Reading Neuromancer, Reading Cyberspace Debates, College English, Vol. 63, No. 2, pp. 202 [ 19 ]. William Gibson (1995): Neuromancer, Paperback edition, pp. 16 [ 20 ]. William Gibson (1995): Neuromancer, Paperback edition, pp. 67 (ellipsis in original) [ 21 ]. Daniel Punday (2000): The Narrative Construction of Cyberspace: Reading Neuromancer, Reading Cyberspace Debates, College English, Vol. 63, No. 2, pp. 203 [ 22 ]. Benjamin Fair (2005): Stepping Razor in Orbit: Postmodern Identity and Political Alternatives in William Gibson's Neuromancer, Critique: Studies in Contemporary Fiction, pp. 92-103 [ 23 ]. Daniel Punday (2000): The Narrative Construction of Cy berspace: Reading Neuromancer, Reading Cyberspace Debates, College English, Vol. 63, No. 2, pp. 194-213